ReviewNanoencapsulation of food ingredients using lipid based delivery systems
Introduction
Nanotechnology is defined as creation, utilization and manipulation of materials, devices or systems in the nanometer scale (smaller than 100 nm). In recent years nanotechnology has found innumerable applications in different food industries (Aguilera et al., 2008, Fathi and Mohebbi, 2010, Neethirajan and Jayas, 2010, Rizvi et al., 2010, Sanguansri and Augustin, 2006). Some potential applications of this technology in nanoencapsulation and delivery of bioactive components have been documented in pharmaceutics, as well as cosmetics and food sciences (Farokhzad and Langer, 2009, Liu et al., 2008, Müller et al., 2007, Sagalowicz et al., 2006, Shah et al., 2007, Shimoni, 2009). Delivery system is defined as one in which a bioactive material is entrapped in a carrier to control the rate of bioactive release. Nanocarriers can protect a bioactive component from unfavorable environmental conditions e.g. oxidation and pH and enzymes degradation (Fang and Bhandari, 2010, Ghosh et al., 2009, Zimet and Livney, 2009). Nanocarriers provide more surface area and have the potential to enhance solubility, improve bioavailability and ameliorate controlled release and targeting of the encapsulated food ingredients, in comparison to micro-size carriers (Mozafari, 2006a, Weiss et al., 2009).
Generally two controlled release mechanisms (Fig. 1) can be observed during delivery of a bioactive (Lakkis, 2007). (i) Delayed release, which is a mechanism by which the release of a bioactive substance is delayed from a bounded “lag time” up to a point when/where its release is preferred and is no longer obstructed. This mechanism could be used for flavor release in ready-meals, color release in beverages or protection of nutrition compounds in gastric condition and their release in the intestine. (ii) Sustained release, which is a mechanism engineered to keep constant concentration of a bioactive at its target site. This system can be employed for extending the release of the encapsulated material, including flavor or certain drugs such as insulin, in chewing gum. Many variables overshadow bioactive release of the encapsulated material. These include shape and dimensions of carrier, bioactive diffusivity and solubility in encapsulant and environmental media, erosion rate, polymorphism status of lipid based carriers, porosity and tortuosity, bioactive ratio between carrier and aqueous medium, encapsulation load (weight ratio of encapsulant to lipid) and loading efficiency (weight ratio entrapped to free encapsulant) and pH value of the medium (Barat et al., 2008, Briones and Sato, 2010, Jalsenjak, 1992, Sant et al., 2005, Siepmann et al., 2002, Yang and Washington, 2006, Zhang et al., 2003). Having a high encapsulation efficiency is always favorable, albeit encapsulation load more than 50% is not proper due to increase risk of bioactive leakage in case of more surface defect (Madene, Jacquot, Scher, & Desobry, 2006).
Typically, food applicable nanocarrier systems can be carbohydrate, protein or lipid based. Despite of different advantages of carbohydrate and protein based nanocapsules, they do not have potential of fully scale up due to requirement of applying different complicated chemical or heat treatments which cannot be completely controlled. On the other hand, lipid based nanocarriers have possibility of industrial production and bear advantage of more encapsulation efficiency and low toxicity. In this paper we will provide an overview of recent developments in different aspects (e.g. production methods, physicochemical properties, stabilization techniques, release mechanisms, advantages and disadvantages) of four famous lipid based carriers namely nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructure lipid carriers (NLCs) (Table 1). In the last section of the paper, mathematical models for predication of bioactive release kinetics of lipid based nanocarriers are presented.
Section snippets
Nanoemulsions
Nanoemulsions (also known as miniemulsions or submicron emulsions) are nanoscale droplets of multiphase colloidal dispersions formed by dispersing of one liquid in another immiscible liquid by physical share-induced rupturing (Liu et al., 2006, Mason et al., 2006, Meleson et al., 2004, Russel et al., 1989). Different size ranges have been reported in the literature for nanoemulsions; e.g. less than 100 nm (Guo et al., 2007, Porras et al., 2008, Shakeel and Ramadan, 2010), 10–100 nm (
Modeling bioactive release of nanoscale delivery systems
Towards augmenting the controlled delivery systems, mathematical modeling of the release process plays an important role as it demonstrates the mechanism(s) of bioactive release, provides a scenario for the optimization of the carrier systems and avoids excessive experimentation. Generally, the bioactive release is governed by one or combination of three different mechanisms, i.e. (i) diffusion; (ii) erosion; and (iii) swelling. However, the two latter ones are more likely to occur in
Concluding and future remarks
Despite the strong upsurge in the investigations of nano-delivery systems and proven role of nanoencapsulation in enhancing bioavailability, solubility and protection of food ingredients, there is no comprehensive information on different aspects of lipid-based nanocarriers. In this paper we attempted to provide an overview of latter developments of four lipid based encapsulation systems namely nanoemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructure lipid carriers. Recent studies
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