ReviewNanomaterial-based biosensors for environmental and biological monitoring of organophosphorus pesticides and nerve agents
Introduction
Organophosphorus (OP) compounds are primarily used as insecticides (e.g., paraoxon, parathion and coumaphos) [1], [2] and developed as chemical-weapon nerve agents (e.g., sarin and soman) [3], [4] worldwide. The large amounts of residues of OP pesticides in the environment, such as air, soil, water and food, and terrorist attacks with nerve-agent gas are major public health and national security concerns. Due to the toxicity of OP pesticides and nerve agents, and the danger presented by their accidental or intentional release in populated areas, the development of rapid, sensitive, inexpensive diagnosis tools for environmental and biological monitoring is currently a research area of great interest.
Currently, the method for pesticide detection usually involves liquid or gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry detection (HPLC-MS, GC-MS) due to their sensitivity and reliability, but requires meticulous sample preparation and highly qualified technicians [5], [6], [7], [8], [9]. By contrast, electrochemical and immunoassay techniques are very attractive for developing simple, inexpensive biosensors for rapid and on-site monitoring of OP pesticides and nerve agents. A biosensor is a self-contained device that integrates an immobilized biological element (e.g., enzyme or antibody) that recognizes the analyte (e.g., enzyme substrate or antigen) and a transduction element is used to convert the (bio)chemical signal resulting in an electronic or optical interaction of the analyte with the bioreceptor. Because of their simplicity, low cost, high sensitivity and ease of miniaturization, electrochemical and optical biosensors have been widely used for detection of OP pesticides [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16].
Despite electrochemical and optical biosensors providing great advantages, their emergence from the research laboratory to the marketplace has been slow. The obstacles to exploitation have been fundamentally related to the presence of biomaterial in the biosensor, the development of the sensor device and the integration of biosensors into complete systems. Major fundamental and technological advances need to be made towards enhancing the sensitivity, the selectivity and the reliability of OP-pesticide biosensors, and the emergence of nanotechnology may open new horizons and satisfy the above targets. Nanomaterials are attractive because of their unique electrical, chemical and physical properties (i.e. size, composition, conductivity, magnetism, mechanical strength, and light-absorbing and emitting). The most studied nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, metal nanoparticles (NPs), and quantum dots (QDs) have been especially targeted for developing novel biosensors [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22]. By utilizing nanomaterials, the biosensors have shown great promise for the detection of chemical markers and biomarkers of exposure, primarily because the nanomaterials are used as signal transducers to mediate current flow or as recognition agents and electroactive tags to indicate the detection of analyte. Nanotechnology can be expected to be an effective approach to develop more sophisticated multi-analyte detection systems with low costs.
This review summarizes recent advances in the development of analytical systems for rapid, sensitive monitoring of OP pesticides and nerve agents in the environment and in humans. In different applications, biosensors have been classified as for environmental detection and biological monitoring. In Section 2, we present enzyme/enzyme-free biosensors. In Section 3, we review various biomarkers, including chemical metabolites, enzyme activity and OP adducts, and exposure to OP pesticides. Table 1 summarizes the specific pesticides tested using various types of analytical systems, integrated nanomaterials, and the limits of detection in each case. Finally, we discuss future considerations and opportunities for advancing the use of biosensors to monitor OP pesticides and nerve agents.
Section snippets
Nanomaterial-based biosensors for environmental monitoring of organophosphorus pesticides and nerve agents
Worldwide, OP compounds account for over 38% of the total pesticides used [23]. These OP compounds could end up polluting municipal water supplies and the surrounding environments. Reports have expressed concerns over exposure to unintended target organisms (e.g., birds and fish), and over the potential for human exposure from sources such as fresh fruits and vegetables. These OP compounds have a high affinity for binding to and inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an enzyme specifically
Nanomaterial-based biosensors for biological monitoring of exposure to organophosphorus pesticides and nerve agents
Biological monitoring (biomonitoring) is a continual examination of biological specimens taken from the body (e.g., blood, urine, or body tissue) for identification of health risks or in the course of therapy. The acute toxicity resulting from OP contact is well documented and understood [65]. Because OP pesticides are powerful inhibitors of carboxylic ester hydrolases, including cholinesterase (ChE), exposure to them can result in acute cholinergic syndrome, which is characterized by a variety
Discussion and conclusion
Nanomaterial-based biosensors offer a wide range of applications for analysis of OP pesticides and nerve agents in environmental and biological systems, given that they are minimally susceptible to matrix effects and are selective for the compound of interest. An important consideration for sensor development is optimization of the sensor performance for a broad range of chemicals in the environment (e.g., water, air, and food) and biological matrices (e.g., blood, urine, and saliva) that are
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (21275062) and the Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University (NCET-12-0871).
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