Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T03:45:16.671Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Wildlife and oil in the Antarctic: a recipe for cold disaster

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2012

Valeria Ruoppolo ,
Eric J. Woehler ,
Kerri Morgan  and
Curtiss J. Clumpner
Valeria Ruoppolo
Affiliation:
International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW), 290 Summer Street, MA 02675, Yarmouth Port, USA and Aiuká, Consultoria em Soluções Ambientais, Av. Benedito F. Silva 472, São Paulo, SP, 04786–000, Brazil (vruoppolo@ifaw.org)
Eric J. Woehler
Affiliation:
School of Zoology, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 05, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
Kerri Morgan
Affiliation:
New Zealand Wildlife Health Centre, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Wildlife Health Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
Curtiss J. Clumpner
Affiliation:
International Bird Rescue, 1526 Franklin Avenue, Astoria, Oregon 97103, USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The increasing rate of incidents involving vessels in the Southern Ocean (including vessels sinking) has highlighted the potential for substantial fuel spills into the Antarctic environment. An increasing number of tourist and fishing vessels, often without ice strengthened hulls, are penetrating farther into, and staying longer in, Antarctic waters, with a focus for destinations of wildlife concentrations. Based on a survey of national operators in the Antarctic, there is little preparation for an oil spill event that involves Antarctic wildlife. This is a recipe for a catastrophic spill event, with the potential for high numbers of oiled wildlife in a remote part of the world where there are major logistical constraints on the provision of equipment and skilled response personnel. Here we chronicle shipping incidents that have led to oil spills in the Southern Ocean, the current legislation and contingency plans currently in place by national Antarctic operators, and examine their preparedness and expertise for an oiled wildlife event response. It is clear that national, fishing and tourism operators are manifestly unprepared for an oiled wildlife event in the Southern Ocean. We identify five critical constraints to any response and provide recommendations that address these constraints.

Type
Research Article
Information
Polar Record , Volume 49 , Issue 2 , April 2013 , pp. 97 - 109
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ainley, D.G., O'Connor, E.F., and Boekelheide, R.J.. 1984. The marine ecology of birds in the Ross Sea, Antarctica. Ornithological Monographs 32: 1–97.Google Scholar
Aislabie, J., Balks, M.R., Astoric, N., Stevenson, G., and Symons, R.. 1999. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fuel-oil contaminated soils, Antarctica. Chemosphere 39: 2201–2207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aislabie, J.M., Balks, M.R., Foght, J.M., and Waterhouse, E.J.. 2004. Hydrocarbon spills on Antarctic soils: effects and management. Environmental Science and Technology 38: 1265–1274.Google ScholarPubMed
Anon. (Anonymous). 1989. Peru's first station is on King George Island. Antarctic 11 (11): 420–421.Google Scholar
ATCM. (Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting). 1989. Recommendation XV-4: Human impact on the Antarctic environment. Prevention, control and response to marine pollution. URL: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/info_measures_listitem.aspx?lang=e&id=173 (accessed 30 October 2011).Google Scholar
ATCM. (Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting). 2005a. Resolution XXVIII-3: fuel storage and handling. URL: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/info_measures_listitem.aspx?lang=e&id=348 (accessed 30 October 2011).Google Scholar
ATCM. (Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting). 2005b. Decision XXVIII-8: use of heavy fuel oil (HFO) in Antarctica. URL: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/info_measures_listitem.aspx?lang=e&id=343 (accessed 30 October 2011).Google Scholar
ATCM. (Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting). 2010. Decision XXXIII-4: liability arising from environmental emergencies. URL: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/info_measures_report.aspx?id=469&lang=e (accessed 30 October 2011).Google Scholar
ATME. (Antarctic Treaty Meeting of Experts). 2009a. Marine oil spills in the Antarctic Treaty area – environmental considerations regarding oil spill behaviour and potential for impacts. WP5. Wellington, New Zealand.Google Scholar
ATME. (Antarctic Treaty Meeting of Experts). 2009b. Oil spill response. WP6. Wellington, New Zealand.Google Scholar
ATS. (Antarctic Treaty System). 2011. The protocol on environmental protection to the Antarctic Treaty – documents. URL: http://www.ats.aq/e/ep.htm (accessed 30 October 2011).Google Scholar
Aronson, R.B., Thatje, S., McClintock, J.B., and Hughes, K.A.. 2011. Anthropogenic impacts on marine ecosystems in Antarctica. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1223: 82–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bertram, E., Gunn, C., and Stonehouse, B.. 2007. The cruise of MS Golden Princess in Antarctic waters, January 2007. Polar Record 44: 177–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BirdLife International. 2011. Species factsheet: Eudyptes moseleyi. URL: http://www.birdlife.org (accessed 15 April 2011).Google Scholar
Brosnan, I. 2011. The diminishing age gap between polar cruisers and their ships: a new reason to codify the IMO guidelines for ships operating in polar waters and make them mandatory? Marine Policy (in press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourne, W.R.P. 1985. South Atlantic snapshots. Marine Pollution Bulletin 16: 5–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Commonwealth of Australia. 1985. The natural resources of the Australian Antarctic Territory. Senate standing committee on national resources. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.Google Scholar
COMNAP. (Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs). 1992a. COMNAP Guidelines for oil spill contingency planning, CGN 01/1992. URL: https://www.comnap.aq/publications/guidelines/archive/comnap_guidelines_oilcontingency_1992/view (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
COMNAP. (Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs). 1992b. COMNAP Guidelines: recommended procedures for fuel oil transfer at stations and bases, CGN 02/1992. URL: https://www.comnap.aq/publications/guidelines/archive/comnap_guidelines_fueltransfer_1992/view (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
COMNAP. (Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs). 1992c. COMNAP Guidelines: recommendations for spill prevention and containment of fuel at stations and bases, CGN 03/1992. URL: https://www.comnap.aq/publications/guidelines/archive/comnap_guidelines_spillprevention_1992/view (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
COMNAP. (Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs). 1993. COMNAP Guidelines for the reporting of oil spill incidents which occur in Antarctica, CGN 04/1993. URL: https://www.comnap.aq/publications/guidelines/archive/comnap_guidelines_spillreport_1992/view (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
COMNAP. (Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs). 2008. COMNAP fuel manual. URL: https://www.comnap.aq/publications/manuals/fuel-manual-v1.0/view (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
Croxall, J.P. 1987. The status and conservation of Antarctic seals and seabirds: a review. Environment International 13: 55–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croxall, J.P., Prince, P.A., Hunter, I., McInnes, S.J.C., and Copestake, P.G.. 1984. The seabirds of the Antarctic Peninsula islands of the Scotia Sea and Antarctic Continent between 80°W and 20°W: their status and conservation. In: Croxall, J.P., Evans, P.G.H., and Schreiber, R.W. (editors). Status and conservation of the world's seabirds. Cambridge: International Council for Bird Preservation (Technical bulletin 2): 637–666.Google Scholar
Eppley, Z.A., and Rubega, M.A.. 1989. Indirect effects of an oil spill. Nature 340: 513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eppley, Z.A., and Rubega, M.A.. 1990. Indirect effects of an oil spill: reproductive failure in a population of South Polar skuas following the ‘Bahia Paraiso’ oil spill in Antarctica. Marine Ecology Progress Series 67: 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, G., and Nichols, P.D.. 1995. Hydrocarbons and sterols in marine sediments and soils at Davis Station, Antarctica: a survey for human-derived contaminants. Antarctic Science 7: 137–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haase, D. 2005. Too much pressure on thin ice? Antarctic tourism and regulatory considerations. Polarforschung 75: 21–27.Google Scholar
Haase, D. 2008. Tourism in the Antarctic – Modi operandi and regulatory effectiveness. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Christchurch, New Zealand: University of Canterbury.Google Scholar
Harris, C.M. 1991. Environmental effects of human activities on King George Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. Polar Record 27 (162): 193–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harvey, A.N. 2011. Toxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons in polar soil. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan.Google ScholarPubMed
Hemmings, A.D. 1989. Oil Spills in Antarctica: Two ships aground within a month. Forest and Bird 20: 5.Google Scholar
Hemmings, A.D. 2011. Environmental Law – Antarctica. In: Bosselmann, K., Fogel, D.S., and Ruhl, J.B. (editors). The law and politics of sustainability. Great Barrington MA: Berkshire Publishing (Berkshire encyclopedia of sustainability. Vol 3): 188–194.Google Scholar
Huin, N., and Croxall, J.P.. 1996. Fishing gear, oil and marine debris associated with seabirds at Bird Island, South Georgia, during 1993/1994. Marine Ornithology 24: 19–22.Google Scholar
IMO. (International Maritime Organization). 2011a. International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage (BUNKER). URL: http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-on-Civil-Liability-for-Bunker-Oil-Pollution-Damage-(BUNKER).aspx (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
IMO. (International Maritime Organization). 2011b. Special areas under the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). URL: http://www.imo.org/ourwork/environment/pollutionprevention/specialareasundermarpol/Pages/Default.aspx (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
IMO. (International Maritime Organization). 2011c. List of amendments expected to enter into force in the coming years. URL: http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/Pages/Action-Dates.aspx (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
IOPC Funds. (International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds). 2011. URL: www.iopcfund.org (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
Irvine, G.V., Mann, D.H., and Short, J.W.. 1999 Multi-year persistence of oil mousse on high energy beaches distant from the Exxon Valdez spill origin. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38: 572–584.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jabour, J. (in press). Strategic management and regulation of Antarctic tourism. In: Tin, T., Liggett, D., Maher, P., and Lamers, M. (editors). The future of Antarctica. Springer.Google Scholar
Kaup, E., and Tammiksaar, E.. In press. Estonia and Antarctica. Polar Record doi:10.1017/S0032247411000234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennicutt, M. 1990. Oil spillage in Antarctica - initial report of the National Science Foundation-sponsored quick response team on the grounding of the Bahia Paraiso. Environmental Science and Technology 24: 620–624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennicutt, M.C., and Sweet, S.T.. 1992. Hydrocarbon contamination on the Antarctic Peninsula: III. The Bahia Paraiso – two years after the spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin 25: 303–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennicutt, M.C., McDonald, T.J., Denoux, G.J., and McDonald, S.J.. 1992a. Hydrocarbon contamination on the Antarctic Peninsula: I. Arthur Harbor - subtidal sediments. Marine Pollution Bulletin 24: 499–506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennicutt, M.C., McDonald, T.J., Denoux, G.J., and McDonald, S.J.. 1992b. Hydrocarbon contamination on the Antarctic Peninsula: II. Arthur Harbor - inter and subtidal limpets. Marine Pollution Bulletin 24: 506–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennicutt, M.C., Sweet, S., Fraser, W.R., Stockton, W.L., and Culvert, M.. 1991a. Grounding of the Bahia Paraiso at Arthur Harbor, Antarctica. 1. Distribution and fate of oil spill related hydrocarbons. Environmental Science and Technology 25: 509–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennicutt, M.C., Sweet, S.T., Fraser, W.R., Stockton, W.L., and Culver, M.. 1991b. The fate of diesel fuel spilled by the Bahia Paraiso in Arthur Harbor, Antarctica. Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute (Proceedings of the 1991 International Oil Spill Conference, San Diego, 4–7 March 1991): 594–600.Google Scholar
Kennicutt, M.C., McDonald, S.T., Sericano, J.L., Boothe, P., Oliver, J., Safe, S., Presley, B.J., Liu, H., Wolfe, D., Wade, T.L., Crockett, A., and Bockus, D.. 1995. Human contamination of the marine environment - Arthur Harbor and McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Environmental Science and Technology 29: 1279–1287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamers, M., Haase, D., and Amelung, B.. 2008. Facing the elements: analysing trends in Antarctic tourism. Tourism Review 63: 15–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, H., and Boufadel, M.C.. 2010. Long-term persistence of oil from the Exxon Valdez spill in two-layer beaches. Nature Geoscience 3: 96–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liggett, D., McIntosh, A., Thompson, A., Storey, B., and Gilbert, N.. 2010. Stakeholder perspectives on the governance of Antarctic cruise tourism. In: Lück, M., Maher, P.T., and Stewart, E.J. (editors). Cruise tourism in polar regions: promoting environmental and social sustainability? London: Earthscan: 167–203.Google Scholar
Liggett, D., McIntosh, A., Thompson, A., Gilbert, N., and Storey, B.. 2011. From frozen continent to tourism hotspot? Five decades of Antarctic tourism development and management, and a glimpse into the future. Tourism Management 32: 357–366.Google Scholar
McDonald, S.J., Kennicutt, M.C., and Brooks, J.M.. 1992. Evidence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure in fish from the Antarctic Peninsula. Marine Pollution Bulletin 25: 313–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, S.J., Kennicutt, M.C., Sericano, J., Wade, T.L., Lui, H., and Safe, S.H.. 1994. Correlation between bioassay derived P4501A1 induction activity and chemical analysis of clams (Laternula elliptica) extracts from McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Chemosphere 28: 2237–2248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nel, D.C., and Whittington, P.A.. 2003. Rehabilitation of oiled African penguins: a conservation success story. Cape Town: BirdLife South Africa and the Avian Demography Unit, University of Cape Town.Google Scholar
Parks and Wildlife Service. 2006. Macquarie Island nature reserve and world heritage area management plan. Hobart: Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Tourism, Arts and the Environment.Google Scholar
Patterson, D.L., Woehler, E.J., Croxall, J.P., Cooper, J., Poncet, S., Peter, H.-U., Hunter, S., and Fraser, W.R.. 2008. Breeding distribution and population status of the northern giant petrel Macronectes halli and southern giant petrel M. giganteus. Marine Ornithology 36: 115–124 (with online appendices).Google Scholar
Penhale, P., Coosen, J., and Marschoff, E.R.. 1997. The Bahia Paraiso: a case study in environmental impact, remediation and monitoring. In: Battaglia, B., Valencia, J., and Walton, D.W.H. (editors). Antarctic communities - species, structure and survival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 437–444.Google Scholar
Pople, A., Simpson, R.D., and Cairns, S.C.. 1990. An incident of Southern Ocean oil pollution: effects of a spillage of diesel fuel on the rocky shore of Macquarie Island (Sub-antarctic). Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 41: 603–620.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rayner, J.L., Snape, I., Walworth, J.L., Harvey, P.M., and Ferguson, S.H.. 2007. Petroleum–hydrocarbon contamination and remediation by microbioventing at sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island. Cold Regions Science and Technology 48: 139–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, K. 1995. Oiled penguins observed at Bird Island, South Georgia. Marine Ornithology 23: 53–57.Google Scholar
Republic of Liberia. 2009. Report of investigation in the matter of sinking of passenger vessel EXPLORER (O.N. 8495) 23 November 2007 in the Bransfield Strait near the South Shetland Islands. Monrovia, Liberia: Bureau of Maritime Affairs. URL: http://www.ats.aq/documents/ATCM32/att/ATCM32_att079_e.pdf (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
Revill, A.T., Snape, I., Lucieer, A., and Guille, D.. 2007. Constraints on transport and weathering of petroleum contamination at Casey Station, Antarctica. Cold Regions Science and Technology 48: 154–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ribic, C.A., Ainley, D.G., Ford, R.G., Fraser, W.R., Tynan, C.T., and Woehler, E.J.. 2011. Water masses, ocean fronts, and the structure of Antarctic seabird communities: putting the eastern Bellingshausen Sea in perspective. Deep-Sea Research II 58: 1695–1709.Google Scholar
Rothwell, D.N. 1996. The polar regions and the development of international law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
SCAR. (Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research). 1999. SCAR Bullettin n° 133, 1999. Polar Record 35: 171–190.Google Scholar
SCAR. (Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research). 2011. Action Group on Antarctic Fuel Spills (AGAFS). URL: http://www.scar.org/researchgroups/lifescience/fuelspills/ (accessed 18 November 2011).Google Scholar
Schafer, A.N., Snape, I., and Siciliano, S.D.. 2007. Soil biogeochemical toxicity end points for sub-antarctic islands contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 26: 890–897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, D.A., and Simpson, R.D.. 1995. Effects of the Nella Dan oil spill on the fauna of Durvillea antarctica holdfasts. Marine Ecology Progress Series 121: 73–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, S.D.A., and Simpson, R.D.. 1998. Recovery of benthic communities at Macquarie Island (sub-Antarctic) following a small oil spill. Marine Biology 131: 567–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snape, I., Harvey, P. McA., Ferguson, S.H., Rayner, J.L., and Revill, A.T.. 2005. Investigation of evaporation and biodegradation of fuel spills in Antarctica. I. A chemical approach using GC–FID. Chemosphere 61: 1485–1494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tin, T., Fleming, Z.L., Hughes, K.A., Ainley, D.G., Convey, P., Moreno, C.A., Pfeiffer, S., Scott, J., and Snape, I.. 2009. Impacts of local human activities on the Antarctic environment. Antarctic Science 21: 3–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tristan da Cunha. 2011. MS Oliva: seabird rehabilitation on Tristan da Cunha main island URL: http://www.tristandc.com/newsmsolivatristan.php (accessed on 30 October 2011).Google Scholar
UNESCO. (United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation). 2011. Gough and Inaccessible Islands. URL: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/740/ (accessed on 16 April 2011).Google Scholar
van Franeker, J. A. 2002. Distribution and population densities of marine mammals south of 60°S. Polarforschung 72: 71–74.Google Scholar
Venosa, A.D., and Zhu, X.. 2003. Biodegradation of crude oil contaminating marine shorelines and freshwater wetlands. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin 8: 163–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, G.J. 1979. Oiled penguins in Antarctica. New Zealand Antarctic Record 2: 3.Google Scholar
Woehler, E.J. 1993. The distribution and abundance of Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic penguins. Cambridge: Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR).Google Scholar
Woehler, E.J. 2006. Status and conservation of the seabirds of Heard Island and the McDonald Islands. In: Green, K., and Woehler, E.J. (editors). Heard Island, Southern Ocean sentinel. Chipping Norton: Surrey Beatty and Sons: 128–165.Google Scholar
Woehler, E.J., and Croxall, J.P.. 1997. The status and trends of Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic seabirds. Marine Ornithology 25: 43–66.Google Scholar
Woehler, E.J., and Johnstone, G.W.. 1991. Status and conservation of the seabirds of the Australian Antarctic Territory. In: Croxall, J.P. (editor). Seabird status and conservation: a supplement. Cambridge: International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP Technical publication 11): 279–308.Google Scholar
Woehler, E.J., Hodges, C.L., and Watts, D.J.. 1990. An atlas of the pelagic distribution and abundance of seabirds in the southern Indian Ocean 1981 to 1990. Kingston, Tasmania: Australian Antarctic Division (ANARE Research Notes 77).Google Scholar
Woehler, E.J., Raymond, B.. and Watts, D.J.. 2006. Convergence or divergence: where do short-tailed shearwaters forage in the Southern Ocean? Marine Ecology Progress Series 324: 261–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woehler, E.J., Ainley, D.G., Hemmings, A.D., Jabour, J., and de Villiers, M.S. (in press). Human impacts to Antarctic wildlife: predictions and speculations for 2060. In: Tin, T., Liggett, D., Maher, P., and Lamers, M. (editors). The future of Antarctica. Springer.Google Scholar
Woehler, E.J., Cooper, J., Croxall, J.P., Fraser, W.R., Kooyman, G.L., Miller, G.D., Nel, D.C., Patterson, D.L., Peter, H.-U., Ribic, C.A., Salwicka, K., Trivelpiece, W.Z., and Weimerskirch, H.. 2001. A statistical assessment of the status and trends of Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic seabirds. Bozeman, Montana: SCAR/NSF/CCAMLR.Google Scholar
Wolfaardt, A. 2009. The conservation value of cleaning oiled African penguins. Cologne: Lambert Academic Publishing.Google Scholar
Wright, A.N. 2008. Southern exposure: managing sustainable cruise ship tourism in the Antarctic. California Western International Law Journal 39: 43–86.Google Scholar