Abstract
The world's soils contain about 1500 Gt of organic carbon to a depth of 1m and a further 900 Gt from 1--2m. A change of total soil organic carbon by just 10% would thus be equivalent to all the anthropogenic CO2 emitted over 30 years. Warming is likely to increase both the rate of decomposition and net primary production (NPP), with a fraction of NPP forming new organic carbon. Evidence from various sources can be used to assess whether NPP or the rate of decomposition has the greater temperature sensitivity, and, hence, whether warming is likely to lead to an increase or decrease in soil organic carbon.
Evidence is reviewed from laboratory-based incubations, field measurements of organic carbon storage, carbon isotope ratios and soil respiration with either naturally varying temperatures or after experimentally increasing soil temperatures. Estimates of terrestrial carbon stored at the Last Glacial Maximum are also reviewed. The review concludes that the temperature dependence of organic matter decomposition can be best described as: d(T) = exp[3.36 (T − 40)/(T + 31.79)] where d(T) is the normalised decomposition rate at temperature T (in °C). In this equation, decomposition rate is normalised to ‘1’ at 40 °C.
The review concludes by simulating the likely changes in soil organic carbon with warming. In summary, it appears likely that warming will have the effect of reducing soil organic carbon by stimulating decomposition rates more than NPP. However, increasing CO2 is likely to simultaneously have the effect of increasing soil organic carbon through increases in NPP. Any changes are also likely to be very slow. The net effect of changes in soil organic carbon on atmospheric CO2 loading over the next decades to centuries is, therefore, likely to be small.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams JM, Faure H, Faure-Denard L, McGlade JM & Woodward FI (1990) Increases in terrestrial carbon storage from the Last Glacial Maximum to the present. Nature 348: 711–714
Anderson DW & Paul EA (1984) Organo-mineral complexes and their study by radiocarbon dating. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 48: 298–301
Anderson JM (1992) Responses of soils to climate change. Adv. Ecol. Res. 22: 163–210
Balesdent J, Mariotti A & Guillet B (1987) Natural 13C abundance as a tracer for studies of soil organic matter dynamics. Soil Biol. Bioch. 19: 25–30
Batjes NH (1996) Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 47: 151–163
Bird MI, Chivas AR & Head J (1996a) A latitudinal gradient in carbon turnover times in forest soils. Nature 381: 143–146
Bird MI, Lloyd J & Farquhar GD (1994) Terrestrial carbon storage at the LGM. Nature 371: 566
Bird MI, Lloyd J & Farquhar GD (1996b) Terrestrial carbon-storage from the Last Glacial Maximum to the present. Chemosph. 33: 1675–1685
Boone RD, Nadelhoffer KJ, Canary JD & Kaye, JP (1998) Roots exert a strong influence on the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration. Nature 396: 570–572
Burke IC, Yonker CM, Parton WJ, Cole CV, Flach K & Schimel DS (1989) Texture, climate, and cultivation effects on soil organic matter contents in U.S. grassland soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 53: 800–805
Carter JO, Howden SM, Day KA & McKeon, GM (1998) Soil carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and biodiversity in relation to climate change. In: Final Report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (pp 185–249). RIRDC, Canberra, Australia
Cramer WP & Solomon AM (1993) Climatic classification and future global redistribution of agricultural land. Clim. Res. 3: 97–110
Cramer WP, Kicklighter DW, Bondeau A, Moore III B, Churkina G, Nemry B, Ruimy A & Schloss AL (1999) Comparing global models of terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP): Overview and key results. Glob. Ch. Biol. 5: 1–15
Crowley TJ (1991) Ice age carbon. Nature 352: 575–576
Crowley TJ (1995) Ice age terrestrial carbon changes revisited. Glob. Biog. Cyc. 9: 377–389
Davidson, E, Belk, E & Boone, RD (1998) Soil water content and temperature as independent or confounded factors controlling soil respiration in a temperate mixed hardwood forest. Glob. Ch. Biol. 4: 217–227
Detwiler, RP (1986) Land use change and the global carbon cycle: the role of tropical soils. Biogeochem. 2: 67–93
Epstein HE, Lauenroth WK, Burke IC & Coffin DP (1997) Productivity patterns of C3 and C4 functional types in the U.S. Great Plains. Ecol. 78: 722–731
Eswaran H, van den Berg E & Reich P (1993) Organic carbon in soils of the world. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57: 192–194
Friedlingstein P, Delire C, Müller JF & Gerard JC (1992) The climate induced variation of the continental biosphere: A model simulation of the Last Glacial Maximum. Geophys. Res. Lett. 19: 897–900
Goncalves JLM & Carlyle JC (1994) Modelling the influence of moisture and temperature on net nitrogen mineralisation in a forested sandy soil. Soil Biol. Bioch. 26: 1557–1564
Harradine F & Jenny H (1958) Influence of parent material and climate on texture and nitrogen and carbon contents of virgin California soils. I. Texture and nitrogen contents of soils. Soil Sci. 85: 235–243
Jenkinson DS, Adams DE & Wild A (1991) Model estimates of CO2 emissions from soil in response to global warming. Nature 351: 304–306
Jenkinson DS, Harkness DD, Vance ED, Adams DE & Harrison AF (1992) Calculating net primary production and annual input of organic matter to soil from the amount and radiocarbon content of soil organic matter. Soil Biol. Biochem. 24: 295–308
Jenny H (1980) The Soil Resource: Origin and Behavior. Ecological Studies No. 37. Springer Verlag, New York
Johnson IR & Thornley JHM (1985) Temperature dependence of plant and crop processes. Ann. Bot. 55: 1–24
Keith H, Jacobsen KL & Raison RJ (1997) Effects of soil phosphorus availability, temperature and moisture on soil respiration in Eucalyptus pauciflora forest. Plant and Soil 190: 127–141
Kern RA & Schlesinger WH (1992) Carbon stores in vegetation. Nature 357: 447–448
King AW, Post WM & Wullschleger SD (1997) The potential response of terrestrial carbon storage to changes in climate and atmospheric CO2. Clim. Change 35: 199–227
King GA & Neilson RP (1992) The transient response of vegetation to climate change: A potential source of CO2 to the atmosphere. Water, Air, Soil Poll. 64: 365–383
Kirschbaum MUF (1993) A modelling study of the effects of changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration, temperature and atmospheric nitrogen input on soil organic carbon storage. Tellus 45B: 321–334
Kirschbaum MUF (1994) The sensitivity of C3 photosynthesis to increasing CO2 concentration. A theoretical analysis of its dependence on temperature and background CO2 concentration. Plant, Cell Environ. 17: 747–754
Kirschbaum MUF (1995). The temperature dependence of soil organic matter decomposition and the effect of global warming on soil organic carbon storage. Soil Biol. Biochem. 27: 753–760
Kladivko EJ & Keeney DR (1987) Soil nitrogen mineralization as affected by water and temperature interactions. Biol. Fertil. Soils 5: 248–252
Koepf, H. (1953) Die Temperatur/Zeit - Abhängigkeit der Bodenatmung. Z. f. Pflanz., Düng. Bodenk. 61: 29–48
Kuhlbusch TA & Crutzen PJ (1995) Toward a global estimate of black carbon in residues of vegetation fires representing a sink of atmospheric CO2 and a source of O2. Glob. Biog. Cyc. 9: 491–501
Lieth H (1973) Primary production: Terrestrial ecosystems. Human Ecol. 1: 303–332
Lloyd J & Taylor JA (1994) On the temperature dependence of soil respiration. Funct. Ecol. 8: 315–323
Lükewille A & Wright RF (1997) Experimentally increased soil temperature causes release of nitrogen at a boreal forest catchment in southern Norway. Glob. Ch. Biol. 3: 13–21
Martin A, Mariotti A, Balesdent J, Lavelle P & Vuattoux R (1990) Estimate of organic matter turnover rate in a savanna soil by 13C natural abundance measurements. Soil Biol. Biochem. 22: 517–523
McHale PJ, Mitchell MJ, Raynal DJ & Bowles FP (1996) Increasing soil temperature in a northern hardwood forest: Effects on elemental dynamics and primary productivity. In: Hom J, Birdsey R & O'Brian K (Eds) Proceedings of 1995 Meeting of the Northern Global Change Program. General Technical Report NE-214 (pp 146–152). USDA Forest Service, Radnor PA, U.S.A.
Nadelhoffer KJ, Giblin AE, Shaver GR & Laundre JA (1991) Effects of temperature and substrate quality on element mineralization in six arctic soils. Ecology 72: 242–253
Neilson RP (1993) Vegetation redistribution: A possible biospheric source of CO2 during climatic change. Water, Air, Soil Poll. 70: 659–673
Nyhan JW (1976) Influence of soil temperature and water tension on the decomposition rate of carbon-14 labelled herbage. Soil Sci. 121: 288–293
O'Brien BJ & Stout JD (1978) Movement and turnover of soil organic matter as indicated by carbon isotope measurements. Soil Biol. Biochem. 10: 309–317
O'Connell AM (1990) Microbial decomposition (respiration) of litter in eucalypt forests of south-western Australia: An empirical model based on laboratory incubations. Soil Biol. Biochem. 22: 153–160
Olson JS (1963) Energy storage and the balance of producers and decomposers in ecological systems. Ecology 44: 322–331
Pajari B (1995) Soil respiration in a poor upland site of Scots pine stand subjected to elevated temperature and atmospheric carbon concentration. Plant and Soil 168- 169: 563–570
Parton WJ, Schimel DS, Cole CV & Ojima DS (1987) Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in Great Plains grasslands. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 51: 1173–1179
Peterjohn WT, Melillo JM, Bowles FP & Steudler PA (1993) Soil warming and trace gas fluxes: Experimental design and preliminary flux results. Oecol. 93: 18–24
Peterjohn WT, Melillo JM, Steudler PA & Newkirk KM (1994) Responses of trace gas fluxes and N availability to experimentally elevated soil temperatures. Ecol. Appl. 4: 617–625
Post WM, Emanuael WR, Zinke PJ & Stangenberger AG (1982) Soil carbon pools and world life zones. Nature 298: 156–159
Post WM, Pastor J, Zinke PJ & Stangenberger AG (1985) Global patterns of soil nitrogen storage. Nature 317: 613–616
Prentice IC & Sykes MT (1995) Vegetation geography and global carbon storage changes. In: Woodwell GM & Mackenzie FT (Eds) Biospheric Feedbacks in the Global Climate System - Will the Warming Feed the Warming? (pp 304–312). Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York
Prentice IC, Sykes MT, Lautenschlager M, Harrison SP Denissenko O & Bartlein PJ (1993) Modelling global vegetation patterns and terrestrial carbon storage at the last glacial maximum. Glob. Ecol. Biog. Lett. 3: 67–76
Prentice KC & Fung IY (1990) The sensitivity of terrestrial carbon storage to climate change. Nature 346: 48–51
Raich JW & Schlesinger WH (1992) The global carbon dioxide flux in soil respiration and its relationship to vegetation and climate. Tellus 44B: 81–99
Robinson CH, Wookey PA, Parsons AN, Potter JA, Callaghan TV, Lee JA, Press MC & Welker JM (1995) Responses of plant litter decomposition and nitrogen mineralisation to stimulated environmental change in a high arctic polar semi-desert and a subarctic dwarf shrub heath. Oikos 74: 503–512
Ross DJ & Cairns A (1978) Influence of temperature on biochemical processes in some soils from tussock grasslands. N. Z. J. Sci. 21: 581–589
Rustad LE & Fernandez IJ (1998a) Experimental soil warming effects on CO2 and CH4 flux from a low elevation spruce-fir forest soil in Maine, U.S.A. Glob. Ch. Biol. 4: 597–605
Rustad LE & Fernandez IJ (1998b) Soil warming: Consequences for foliar litter decay in a spruce-fir forest in Maine, USA. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 62: 1072–1080
Schimel DS, Parton WJ, Kittel TGF, Ojima DS & Cole CV (1990) Grassland biogeochemistry: Links to atmospheric processes. Clim. Ch. 17: 13–25
Schleser GH (1982) The response of CO2 evolution from soils to global temperature changes. Z. f. Naturf. 37a: 287–291
Schlesinger WH (1982) Carbon storage in the caliche of arid soils: a case study from Arizona. Soil Sci. 133: 247–255
Schlesinger WH (1990) Evidence from chronosequence studies for a low carbon-storage potential of soils. Nature 348: 232–234
Schloss AL, Kicklighter DW, Kaduk J, Wittenberg U (1999) Comparing global models of terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP): Comparison of NPP to climate and the normalized difference vegetation index. Glob. Ch. Biol. 5: 25–34
Skjemstad JO, Clarke P, Taylor JA, Oades JM & McClure SG (1996) The chemistry and nature of protected carbon in soil. Aust. J. Soil Res. 34: 251–271
Smith TM, Leemans R & Shugart HH (1992) Sensitivity of terrestrial carbon storage to CO2 induced climate change: Comparison of four scenarios based on general circulation models. Clim. Ch. 21: 367–384
Solomon AM, Prentice IC, Leemans R & Cramer WP (1993) The interaction of climate and land use in future terrestrial carbon storage and release. Wat. Air Soil Poll. 70: 595–614
Stanford G, Frere MH & Schwaninger DH (1973) Temperature coefficient of soil nitrogen mineralization. Soil Sci. 115: 321–323
Thornley JHM, Fowler D & Cannell MGR (1991) Terrestrial carbon storage resulting from CO2 and nitrogen fertilization in temperate grasslands. Plant Cell Environ. 14: 1007–1011
Townsend AR, Vitousek PM & Trumbore SE (1995) Soil organic matter dynamics along gradients in temperature and land use on the island of Hawaii. Ecol. 76: 721–733
Trumbore SE, Chadwick OA & Amundson R (1996) Rapid exchange between soil carbon and atmospheric carbon dioxide driven by temperature change. Sci. 272: 393- 396
Trumbore SE, Davidson EA, de Camargo PB, Nepstad DC & Martinelli LA (1995) Belowground cycling of carbon in forests and pastures of Eastern Amazonia. Glob. Biog. Cyc. 9: 515–528
van Campo E, Guiot J & Peng C (1993) A data-based re-appraisal of the terrestrial carbon budget at the last glacial maximum. Glob. Planet. Ch. 8: 189–201
van Cleve K, Oechel WC, Hom JL (1990) Response of black spruce (Picea mariana) ecosystems to soil temperature modification in interior Alaska. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 1530–1535
Vitorello VA, Cerri CC, Andreux F, Feller C & Victoria RL (1989) Organic matter and natural carbon-13 distribution in forested and cultivated oxisols. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 53: 773–778
Wang YP & Polglase PJ (1995) Carbon balance in the tundra, boreal forest and humid tropical forest during climate change: Scaling up from leaf physiology and soil carbon dynamics. Plant Cell Environ. 18: 1226–1244
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kirschbaum, M.U. Will changes in soil organic carbon act as a positive or negative feedback on global warming?. Biogeochemistry 48, 21–51 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006238902976
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006238902976