Abstract
The human induced input of reactive N into the globalbiosphere has increased to approximately 150 Tg N eachyear and is expected to continue to increase for theforeseeable future. The need to feed (∼125 Tg N) andto provide energy (∼25 Tg N) for the growing worldpopulation drives this trend. This increase inreactive N comes at, in some instances, significantcosts to society through increased emissions of NOx,NH3, N2O and NO3 − and deposition of NOy and NHx.
In the atmosphere, increases in tropospheric ozone andacid deposition (NOy and NHx) have led toacidification of aquatic and soil systems and toreductions in forest and crop system production. Changes in aquatic systems as a result of nitrateleaching have led to decreased drinking water quality,eutrophication, hypoxia and decreases in aquatic plantdiversity, for example. On the other hand, increaseddeposition of biologically available N may haveincreased forest biomass production and may havecontributed to increased storage of atmospheric CO2 inplant and soils. Most importantly, syntheticproduction of fertilizer N has contributed greatly tothe remarkable increase in food production that hastaken place during the past 50 years.
The development of policy to control unwanted reactiveN release is difficult because much of the reactive Nrelease is related to food and energy production andreactive N species can be transported great distancesin the atmosphere and in aquatic systems. There aremany possibilities for limiting reactive N emissionsfrom fuel combustion, and in fact, great strides havebeen made during the past decades. Reducing theintroduction of new reactive N and in curtailing themovement of this N in food production is even moredifficult. The particular problem comes from the factthat most of the N that is introduced into the globalfood production system is not converted into usableproduct, but rather reenters the biosphere as asurplus. Global policy on N in agriculture isdifficult because many countries need to increase foodproduction to raise nutritional levels or to keep upwith population growth, which may require increaseduse of N fertilizers. Although N cycling occurs atregional and global scales, policies are implementedand enforced at the national or provincial/statelevels. Multinational efforts to control N loss tothe environment are surely needed, but these effortswill require commitments from individual countries andthe policy-makers within those countries.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aber JD, Magill A, McNulty SG, Boone RD, Nadlehoffer KJ, Downs M & Hallett R (1995) Forest biogeochemistry and primary production altered by nitrogen saturation. Water, Air and Soil Poll. 85: 1665-1670
Aber J, McDowell W, Nadelhoffer K, Magill A, Berntson G, Kamakea M, McNulty S, Currie W, Rustad L, & Fernandez I (1998) Nitrogen saturation in temperate forest ecosytems. Bioscience 48: 921-934
Abrahamsen G & Stuanes AO (1998) Retention and leaching of N in Norwegian coniferous forests. Nut. Cycling in Agroecosys. 52: 171-178
Almanac for Agriculture of China (1982, 1997) (in Chinese)
Ayers RU, Schlesinger WH & Socolow RH (1994) Human impacts on the carbon and nitrogen cycles. In: Socolow RH, Andrews C, Berkhout R & Thomas V (Eds) Industrial Ecology and Global Change (pp 121-155). Cambridge University Press, New York, New York, USA
Badiane O & Delgado CL (1995) A 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington D.C. 56 pp
Benkovitz CM, Scholtz MT, Pacyna J Tarras n L, Dignon J, Voldner EC, Spiro PA, Logan JA & Graedel TE (1996) Global gridded inventories of anthropogenic emissions of sulfur and nitrogen. J. of Geophys. Res. 101: 29,239-29,253
Bergesen HE & Parmann G (1997) Green Globe Yearbook. Oxford University Press, New York.
Bleken MA (1997) Food consumption and nitrogen losses from agriculture. In: Lag J (Ed.) Some Geomedical Consequences of Nitrogen Circulation Processes. Proceedings of an International Symposium, 12-13 June, 1997 (pp 19-31). The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, Oslo, Norway
Bleken MA & Bakken LR (1997) The nitrogen cost of food production: Norwegian Society. Ambio 26: 134-142
Bouwman AF (1997) Long-term scenarios of livestock-crop-land use interactions in developing countries. FAO Land and Water Bulletin 6. FAO Rome. 145 p
Bouwmann AF & Booij H (1998) Global use and trade of feedstuffs and consequences for the nitrogen cycle. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 52: 261-267
Broadbent FE & Carlton AB (1978) Field trials with isotopically labeled nitrogen fertilizer. In: Nielsen DR & MacDonald JG (Eds) Nitrogen in the Environment (pp 1-43). Academic Press, Inc. New York
Brown LR (1999) Feeding nine billion. In: Brown LR, Flavin C & French H (Eds) State of the World 1999. A World Watch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society (pp 115-132). W. Norton & Company, NY
Bumb BL & Baanante CA (1996) The role of fertilizer in sustaining food security and protecting the environment to 2020. Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 17. International Food Policy Research Institute. Washington, D.C. USA. 54 pp
CIMMYT (1996) World Wheat Facts and Trends 1995/96. D. F., CIMMYT, Mexico
CIMMYT (1999) World Maize Facts and Trends 1997/98. D. F., CIMMYT, Mexico
Cole CV, Cerri C, Minami K, Mosier A, Rosenberg N & Sauerbeck D (1996) Agricultural options for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. In: Watson RT, Zinyowera MC & Moss RH Moss (Eds). Climate Change 1995. Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific Technical Analyses. Published for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Chapter 23 (pp 745-771). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Conway G (1997) The Doubly Green Revolution: Food for All in the 21st Century. Cornell University Press
Crandall, RW & Graham JD (1989) The effect of fuel economy standards on automobile safety. Journal of Law and Economics 32: 97-118
Cui YT, Cheng X, Han CR & Li RG (1998) Nitrogen utilization efficiency of rice and nitrogen leaching in Taihu Lake watershed of south Jiangsu. J. of China Agric. Univ. 3(5): 51-54 (in Chinese)
Dasch, JM (1992) Nitrous-oxide emissions from vehicles. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association 42: 63-67
De Jager D, Blok K & van Brummelen M (1998) Cost-Effectiveness of Emission-Reducing Measures of Nitrous Oxide in The Netherlands. Ecosystem Report M704. Utrecht, The Netherlands
Delmas R, Serca D, & Jambert C (1997) Global inventory of NOx sources. Nut. Cycling in Agroecosys. 48: 51-60
Downing JA, Baker JL, Diaz RJ, Prato T, Rabalais NN & Zimmerman RJ (1999) Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia: Land and Sea Interactions. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Task Force Report No 134. Ames, Iowa. 44 p
Ellis EC & Wang SM (1997) Sustainable traditional agriculture in the Tai Lake Region of China. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 61: 177-193
Ellis EC, Li RG, Yang LZ & Cheng X (2000a) Long-term change in village scale ecosystems in China using landscape and statistical methods. Ecological Applications 10: 1057-1073
Ellis EC, Li RG, Yang LZ & Cheng X (2000b) Changes in village-scale nitrogen storage in China's Tai Lake Region. Ecological Applications 10: 1074-1089
FAO, United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (1999) FAOSTAT: Agricultural Data, are available on the world wide web: (http://www.apps.fao.org/cgi-bin/nphdb. pl?subset=agriculture)
Ferm M (1998) Atmospheric ammonia and ammonium transport in europe and critical loads-A review. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 51: 5-17
Fertilizers and Agriculture (January 1998) Is the Global Nitrogen Cycle Out of Balance? International Fertilizer Industry Association, Paris. 1 p
Galloway J N, Levy H II & Kasibhatla PS (1994) Year 2020: Consequences of population growth and development on the decomposition of oxidized nitrogen. Ambio 23: 120-12
Galloway JN, Schlesinger WH, Levy H II, Michaels A & Schnoor JL (1995) Nitrogen fixation: Anthropogenic enhancement-environmental response. Global Biogeochem. Cyc. 9: 235-252
Geller H (1997) National appliance efficiency standards in the USA: Cost-effective Federal regulations. Energy and Buildings 26(1): 101-109
Greene DL (1998) Why CAFE worked. Energy Policy 26: 595-613
Hendriks CA, de Jager D & Blok K (1998) Emission Reduction Potential and Costs for Methane and Nitrous Oxide in the EU-15. Interim Report. Ecofys report M714. Utrecht, The Netherlands
Holdren JP (1990) Energy in transition. Sci. Am. 263: 157-163
Holland EA & Lamarque JF (1997) Modeling bio-atmospheric coupling of the nitrogen cycle through NOx emissions and NOy deposition. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosys. 48: 7-24
Howarth RW, Billen G, Swaney D, Toronsend A, Joworski N, Lajtha Downing JA, Elmgren R, Caraco N, Jordan T, Berendse F, Freney J, Kudeyarov V, Murdoch P & Zhao-liang Z (1996) Regional nitrogen budgets and riverine N and P fluxes for the drainages to the North Atlantic Ocean: Natural and human influences. Biogeochem. 35: 181-226
Hutchinson GL & Viets FG (1969) Nitrogen enrichment of surface water by absorption of ammonia volatilized from cattle feedlots. Sci. 166: 514-515
IFDC (1999) International Fertilizer Development Center. World Fertilizer Supply/Demand Situation. IFDC, Muscle Shoals, Alabama, February 1999
IPCC (1996) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York
IPCC (1995) Intergovernmental panel on climate change. In: Houghton JT (Ed.) Climate Change 1994. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and an Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission Scenarios. Published for the IPCC, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK. 337 pp
IPCC (1997) Intergovernmental panel on climate change. In: Houghton JT, Meira Filho LG, Lim B, Trennton K, Mamaty I, Bonduki Y, Griggs DJ & Callander BA (Eds) Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 1-3
IRRI (1995) International Rice Research Institute. World Rice Statistics, Los Banos, The Philippines
Lal R, Kimble JM, Follett RF & Cole CV (1998) The Potential of U.S./Cropland to Sequester Carbon and Mitigate the Greenhouse Effect. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsa, MI. 128 p.
Legg JO & Meisinger JJ (1982) Soil nitrogen. In: Stevenson FJ (Ed.) Nitrogen in Agricultural Soils. Agronomy Monograph No. 22 (pp 503-566). ASA-CSSA-SSSA, Madison, WI
Leuck D, Haley S, Liapis P & McDonald B (1995) The EU Nitrate Directive and CAP Reform: Effects on Agricultural Production, Trade, and Residual Soil Nitrogen. Report 255. Economic Research Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC
Li QK, Zhu ZL & Yu TR (1998) Fertilizers and manures in the sustainable agriculture of China. In: Jiangxi Science and Technology Publishers (pp 120-129). (in Chinese) Nanchang
Ma LS (1997) Nitrogen management and environmental and crop quality. In: Zhu ZL, Wen ZX & Freney JR (Eds) Nitrogen in Soils of China, Developments in Plant and Soil Sciences 74 (pp 303-321) Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands
Matson PA, Naylor R & Ortiz-Monasterio I (1998) Integration of environmental, agronomic, and economic aspects of fertilizer management. Science 280: 112-115
Matson PA, Parton WJ, Power AG & Swift MJ (1997) Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties. Science 277: 504-508
McTaggart IP, Clayton H, Parker J, Swan L & Smity KA (1997) Nitrous oxide emissions from grassland and spring barley, following N fertiliser application with and without nitrification inhibitors. Biology and Fertility of Soils 25: 261-268
Minami K (1994) Effect of nitrification inhibitors and slow-release fertilizer on emission of nitrous oxide from fertilized soils. In: Minami K, Mosier A & Sass R (Eds) CH4 and N2O Global Emissions and Controls from Rice Fields and Other Agricultural and Industrial Sources (pp 187-196). NIAES, Yokendo, Tokyo
Mosier AR, Duxbury JM, Freney JR, Heinemeyer O & Minami K (1998) Assessing and mitigating N2O emissions from agricultural soils. Climatic Change 40: 7-38
Müller JF (1992) Geographical distribution and seasonal variation of surface emissions and deposition velocities of atmospheric trace gases. J. Geophys. Res. 97: 3787-3804
NRC (National Research Council) (1993) Soil andWater Quality, An Agenda for Agriculture, Committee on Long-Range Soil and Water Conservation, Board on Agriculture, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 516 p
OECD (1999) Orginazation of Economic Cooperation and Development. Data reported in Economist, “Farm Subsidies”, June 5
Olsthoorn CSM & Fong NPK (1998) The anthropogenic nitrogen cycle in the Netherlands. Nut. Cycling in Agroecosys. 52: 269-276
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1997) OECD Environmental Data Compendium. OECD, Paris
Peoples MB, Mosier AR & Freney JR (1995) Minimizing gaseous losses of nitrogen. In: Bacon PE (Ed.) Nitrogen Fertilization in the Environment (pp 565-602). Marcel Dekker, Inc
Policy (1999) Policy Document on Manure and Ammonia, The Netherlands. HYPERLINK http://www.minlnv.nl/international/policy/green/notutmm.html
Reilly J, Prinn RG, Harnisch J, Fitzmaurice J, Jacoby HD, Kicklighter D, Stone PH, Sokolov AP & Wang C (1999) Multi-Gas Assessment of the Kyoto Protocol. MIT Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change. Report No. 45. 14 p
Schipper L & Meyers S (1992) Energy Efficiency and Human Activity. Cambridge University Press, New York
Seinfeld JH (1986) Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution. John Wiley and Sons, New York
Shoji S & Kanno H (1994) Use of polyolefin-coated fertiizers for increasing fertilizer efficiency and reducing nitrte leaching and nitrous oxide emissions. Fertilizer Research 39: 147-152
Smil V (1990) Nitrogen and phosphorus. In: Turner BL II, Clark WC, Kates RW, Richards JF, Mathews JT & Meyer WB (Eds) The Earth as Transformed by Human action (pp 423-436). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England
Smil V (1991) Population growth and nitrogen: An exploration of a critical existential link. Population and Development Review 17: 569-601
Smil V (1999) Nitrogen in crop production: An account of global flows. Global Biogeochem. Cyc. 13: 647-662
Snyder LP (1994) The death-dealing smog over Donora, Pennsylvania: Industrial air pollution, public health policy, and the politics of expertise. Environmental History Review 18: 117
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) (2000a) Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. Environment and Human Settlements Division, Geneva. http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) (2000b) Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone. Environment and Human Settlements Division, Geneva.http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/pdfbrochure/PolluEng_intro.pdf
USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) (1997) Agricultural Statistics 1997. United States Government Printing Office, Washington DC
UNEP/UNIDO (United Nations Environment Programme/United Nations Industrial Development Organization) (1996) Mineral Fertilizer Production and the Environment. Technical Report No. 26. In collaboration with the International Fertilizer Industry Assoc., Paris. 150 pp
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998a) Fact Sheet: Final Rule for Reducing Regional Transport of Ground-Level Ozone. Office of Air and Radiation, Washington DC
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998b) National Air Pollutant Emissions Update, 1900-1997. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park,North Carolina
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998c) National Air Quality and Emissions Trend Report, 1997. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999) National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Office of Air and Radiation, Washington, DC
Van der Hoek KW (1998) Nitrogen efficiency in global animal production. Environmental Pollution 102: 127-132
Vitousek PM & Matson PA (1993) Agriculture, the global nitrogen cycle, and trace gas flux. In: Oremland RS (Ed.) The Biogeochemistry of Global Change: Radiative Trace Gases (pp 193-208). Chapman & Hall, New Youk, New York, USA
Vitousek PM, Aber J, Howarth RW, Likens GE, Matson PA, Schindler DW, Schlesinger WH & Tilman DG (1997) Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: Causes and Consequences. Issues in Ecology 1: 1-15
Wise W (1968) The World's Worst Air Pollution Disaster. Rand McNally, Chicago
Yan WJ, Yin CQ & Yu SM (1998) Nutrient budgets and biogeochemistry in an experimental agricultural watershed in Southeastern China. Biogeochem. (in press)
Zhu ZL (1997) The fate and management of chemical fertilizer nitrogen in agro-ecosystems. In: Zhu ZL, Wen QX & Freney JR (Eds) Nitrogen in Soils of China, Chap. 11. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London
Zhu ZL (1998a) Fertilizers in relation to agriculture and environment. Exploration of Nature 17(4) 25-28 (in Chinese)
Zhu ZL (1998b) The present situation and problems of nitrogen fertilizer use and the strategies. In: Li QK, Zhu ZL & Yu TR (Eds) Fertilizers and Manures in the Sustainable Agriculture of China (pp 38-51). Jiangxi Science and Technology Publishers (in Chinese). Nanchang
Zhuang WL, Tian Z, Zhang N & Li K (1995) Investigation of nitrate pollution in ground water due to nitrogen fertilization in agriculture in north China. Plant Nutrition and Fertilizer Sciences 1: 80-87 (in Chinese)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mosier*, A.R., Bleken, M.A., Chaiwanakupt, P. et al. Policy implications of human-accelerated nitrogen cycling. Biogeochemistry 52, 281–320 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006430122495
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006430122495