Abstract
Our ability to model spatial distributions of fish populations is reviewed by describing the available modelling tools. Ultimate models of the individual's motivation for behavioural decisions are derived from evolutionary ecology. Mechanistic models for how fish sense and may respond to their surroundings are presented for vision, olfaction, hearing, the lateral line and other sensory organs. Models for learning and memory are presented, based both upon evolutionary optimization premises and upon neurological information processing and decision making. Functional tools for modelling behaviour and life histories can be categorized as belonging to an optimization or an adaptation approach. Among optimization tools, optimal foraging theory, life history theory, ideal free distribution, game theory and stochastic dynamic programming are presented. Among adaptation tools, genetic algorithms and the combination with artificial neural networks are described. The review advocates the combination of evolutionary and neurological approaches to modelling spatial dynamics of fish.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrahams, M.V. (1986) Patch choice under perceptual constraints: a cause for departures from the IFD. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 10, 409–415.
Ackley, D. and Littman, M. (1992) Interactions between learning and evolution. In Langton, C., Taylor, C., Farmer, J. and Rasmussen, S. ed. Artificial Life II. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 487–509.
Aksnes, D.L. and Giske, J. (1990) Habitat profitability in pelagic environments. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 64, 209–215.
Aksnes, D.L. and Giske, J. (1993) A theoretical model of aquatic visual feeding. Ecol. Mod. 67, 233–250.
Aksnes, D.L. and Utne, A.C.W. (1997) A revised model of visual range in fish. Sarsia 82, 137–147.
Alldredge, A.L. (1984) The quantitative significance of gelatinous zooplankton as pelagic consumers. In Fasham, M.J., ed. Flows of Energy and Material in Marine Ecosystems. Theory and Practice (NATO Conf. Ser. Series IV. Marine Science 13). New York: Plenum Press, pp. 407–433.
Anderson, R.W. (1995) Learning and evolution: a quantitative genetics approach. J. Theor. Biol. 175, 89–101.
Atema, J., Fay, R.R., Popper, A.N. and Tavolga, W.N. (eds) (1988) Sensory Biology of Aquatic Animals. New York: Springer Verlag. 936 pp.
Baird, R.C. and Jumper, G.W. (1995) Encounter models and deep-sea fishes: numerical simulations and the mate location problem in Sternoptyx diaphana (Pisces, Sternoptychidae). Deep-Sea Res. I, 42, 675–696.
Baird, R.C., Johari, H. and Jumper, G.Y. (1996) Numerical simulation of environmental modulation of chemical signal structure and odour dispersal in the open ocean. Chem. Senses 21, 121–134.
Balchen, J.G. (1976) Principles of migration in fishes. SINTEF Rapport STF48 A76045, Trondheim, Norway. 33 pp.
Beauchamp, G., Belisle, M. and Giraldeau, L.A. (1997) Influence of conspecific attraction on the spatial distribution of learning foragers in a patchy habitat. J. Anim. Ecol. 66, 671–682.
Benhamou, S., Bovet, P. and Poucet, B. (1995) A model for place navigation in mammals. J. Theor. Biol. 173, 163–178.
Blarer, A. and Doebeli, M. (1996) Heuristic optimisation of the general life history problem. Evol. Ecol. 10, 81–96.
Blaxter, J.H.S. and Batty, R.S. (1985) The development of startle responses in herring larvae. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. UK 65, 737–750.
Bleckmann, H. (1993) Role of the lateral line in fish behaviour. In Pitcher, T.J., ed. Behaviour of Teleost Fishes, 2nd edn. (Fish and Fisheries Series 7). London: Chapman and Hall, pp. 201–246.
Bleckmann, H., Tittel, G. and Blübaum-Gronau, E. (1989) The lateral line system of surface-feeding fish: anatomy, physiology, and behaviour. In Coombs, S., Görner, P. and Münz, H., eds. The Mechanosensory Lateral Line. Neurobiology and Evolution. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 501–526.
Broekhuizen, N., Gurney, W.S.C., Jones, A. and Bryant, A.D. (1994) Modeling compensatory growth. Funct. Ecol. 8, 770–782.
Bush, R.R. and Mosteller, F. (1955) Stochastic Models for Learning. New York: Wiley.
Calow, P. and Townsend, C.R. (1981) Energetics, ecology and evolution. In Townsend, C.R. and Calow, P., eds. Physiological Ecology. An Evolutionary Approach to Resource Use. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 3–19.
Caraco, T. (1980) On foraging time allocation in a stochastic environment. Ecology 61, 119–128.
Charnov, E.L. (1976) Optimal foraging: the marginal value theorem. Theor. Popul. Biol. 9, 129–136.
Clark, C.W. (1993) Dynamic models of behaviour: an extension of life history theory. Trends Ecol. Evol. 8, 205–209.
Clark, C.W. and Ekman, J. (1995) Dominant and subordinate fattening strategies — a dynamic game. Oikos 72, 205–212.
Clark, C.W. and Levy, D.A. (1988) Diel vertical migration by juvenile sockeye salmon and the antipredation window. Am. Nat. 131, 271–290.
Clark, C.W. and Mangel, M. (1986) The evolutionary advantages of group foraging. Theor. Popul. Biol. 30, 45–75.
Coombs, S., Görner, P. and Münz, H. (1989) The Mechanosensory Lateral Line. Neurobiology and Evolution. New York: Springer Verlag.
Craig, R.B., DeAngelis, D.L. and Dixon, K.R. (1979) Long-and short-term dynamic optimisation models with application to the feeding strategy of loggerhead shrike. Am. Nat. 113, 31–51.
Dagorn, L., Petit, M. and Stretta, J.M. (1997) Simulation of large-scale tropical tuna movements in relation with daily remote sensing data: the artificial life approach. BioSystems 44, 167–180.
Dagorn, L., Petit, M., Stretta, J.M., Bernardet, X. and Ramos, A.G. (1995) Towards a synthetic ecoethology of tropical tunas. Sci. Mar. 59, 335–346.
D'Angelo, D.J., Howard, L.M., Meyer, J.L., Gregory, S.V. and Ashkenas, L.R. (1995) Ecological uses for genetic algorithms: predicting fish distributions in complex physical habitats. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 52, 1893–1908.
Davis, L. (1991) Handbook of Genetic Algorithms. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 385 pp.
Dawkins, R. (1976) The Selfish Gene, 2nd edn. (1989) Oxford: Oxford University Press. 352 pp.
Dawkins, R. (1995) River out of Eden. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 172 pp.
DeAngelis, D.L. and Gross, L.J. (1992) Individual-based Models and Approaches in Ecology: Populations, Communities and Ecosystems. New York: Chapman and Hall. 525 pp.
Dower, J.F., Miller, T.J. and Leggett, W.C. (1997) The role of microscale turbulence in the feeding ecology of larval fish. Adv. Mar. Biol. 31, 169–220.
Dunbrack, R.L. and Dill, L.M. (1984) Three-dimensional prey reaction field of the juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 41, 1176–1182.
Ebenman, B. and Persson, L. (eds) (1988) Size-structured Populations. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Eiane, K., Aksnes, D.L. and Giske, J. (1997) The significance of optimal properties in competition among visual and tactile planktivores: a theoretical study. Ecol. Mod. 98, 123–136.
Ekeberg, Ö., Griller, S. and Lansner, A. (1995) The neural control of fish swimming studied through numerical simulations. Adapt. Behav. 3, 363–384.
Emlen, J.M. (1966) The role of time and energy in food preference. Am. Nat. 100, 611–617.
Euler, L. (1760) Recherches générales sur la mortalité: la multiplication du genre humain. Mem. Acad. Sci. Berlin 16, 144–164.
Fernø, A., Pitcher, T.J., Melle, W., Nøttestad, L., Mackinson, S., Hollingworth, C. and Misund, O.A. (1998) The challenge of the herring in the Norwegian Sea: making optimal collective spatial decisions. Sarsia 83, 00–00 (in press)
Fiksen, Ø. (1997) Diel vertical migration and allocation patterns — modelling the optimal Daphnia. Ecology 78, 1446–1456.
Fiksen, Ø. and Carlotti, F. (1998) A model of optimal life history and diel vertical migration in Calanus finmarchicus. Sarsia 83, 00–00 (in press)
Fiksen, Ø. and Giske, J. (1995) Vertical distribution and population dynamics of copepods by dynamic optimisation. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 52, 483–503.
Fiksen, Ø., Giske, J. and Slagstad, D. (1995) A spatially explicit fitness-based model of capelin migrations in the Barents Sea. Fish. Oceanogr. 4, 193–208.
Fisher, R.A. (1930) The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Oxford: Clarendon.
Fleming, R.H. (1939) The control of diatom populations by grazing. J. Cons. Perm. Explor. Mer 14, 210–227.
Fransz, H.G., Mommaerts, J.P. and Radach, G. (1991) Ecological modelling of the North Sea. Neth. J. Sea Res. 28, 67–140.
Fretwell, S.D. (1972) Populations in a Seasonal Environment. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Fretwell, S.D. and Lucas, H.J. Jr (1970) On territorial behaviour and other factors influencing habitat distributions in birds. 1. Theoretical development. Acta Biotheor. 19, 16–36.
Gabriel, W. and Thomas, B. (1988a) The influence of food availability, predation risk, and metabolic costs on the evolutionary stability of diel vertical migration in zooplankton. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 23, 807–811.
Gabriel, W. and Thomas, B. (1988b) Vertical migration of zooplankton as an evolutionarily stable strategy. Am. Nat. 132, 199–216.
Gerritsen, J. and Strickler, J.R. (1977) Encounter probabilities and community structure in zooplankton: a mathematical model. J. Fish. Res. Bd Can. 34, 73–82.
Gilliam, J.F. (1990) Hunting by the hunted: optimal prey selection by foragers under predation hazard. In Hughes, R.N., ed. Behavioural Mechanisms of Food Selection (NATO ASI Series, Vol. G 20). Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 797–819.
Gilliam, J.F. and Fraser, D.F. (1988) Resource depletion and habitat segregation by competitors under predation hazard. In Ebenman, B. and Persson, L., eds. Size-structured Populations — Ecology and Evolution. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 173–184.
Giske, J. and Aksnes, D.L. (1992) Ontogeny, season and trade-offs: vertical distribution of the mesopelagic fish Maurolicus muelleri. Sarsia 77, 253–261.
Giske, J., Aksnes, D.L. and Fiksen, Ø. (1994) Visual predators, environmental variables and zooplankton mortality risk. Vie Milieu 44, 1–9.
Giske, J., Aksnes, D.L. and Førland, B. (1993) Variable generation times and Darwinian fitness measures. Evol. Ecol. 7, 233–239.
Giske, J., Rosland, R., Berntsen, J. and Fiksen, Ø. (1997) Ideal free distribution of copepods under predation risk. Ecol. Model. 95, 45–59.
Giske, J. and Salvanes, A.G.V. (1995) Why pelagic planktivores should be unselective feeders. J. Theor. Biol. 173, 41–50.
Gleitman, H. and Rozin, P. (1971) Learning and memory. In Hoar, W.S. and Randall, D.J., eds. Fish Physiology, Vol. 6. New York: Academic Press, pp. 191–278.
Goldberg, D.E. (1989) Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimisation and Machine Learning. Reading: Addison-Wesley. 412 pp.
Gomez, F. and Miikkulainen, R. (1997) Incremental evolution of complex general behaviour. Adapt. Behav. 5, 317–342.
Guthrie, D.M. and Muntz, W.R.A. (1993) Role of vision in fish behaviour. In Pitcher, T.J., ed. Behaviour of Teleost Fishes, 2nd edn. (Fish and Fisheries Series 7). London: Chapman and Hall, pp. 89–128.
Håkanson, L. (1995) Optimal size of predictive models. Ecol. Mod. 78, 195–204.
Hallam, B.E., Halperin, J.R.P. and Hallam, J.C.T. (1994) An ethological model for implementation in mobile robots. Adapt. Behav. 3, 51–79.
Hamilton, W.D. (1964) The genetical evolution of social behaviour. J. Theor. Biol 7, 1–52.
Hara, T.J. (1993) Role of olfaction in fish behaviour. In Pitcher, T.J., ed. Behaviour of Teleost Fishes, 2nd edn (Fish and Fisheries Series 7). London: Chapman and Hall, pp. 170–199.
Harley, C.B. (1981) Learning the evolutionary stable strategy. J. Theor. Biol. 89, 611–634.
Hart, P.J.B. (1993) Teleost foraging: facts and theories. In Pitcher, T.J., ed. Behaviour of Teleost Fishes, 2nd edn (Fish and Fisheries Series 7). London: Chapman and Hall, pp. 253–284.
Hawkins, A.D. (1993) Underwater sound and fish behaviour. In Pitcher, T.J., ed. Behaviour of Teleost Fishes, 2nd edn (Fish and Fisheries Series 7). London: Chapman and Hall, pp. 129–169.
Henson, S.M. and Hallam, T.G. (1995) Optimal feeding via constrained processes. J. Theor. Biol. 176, 33–37.
Hilborn, R. and Mangel, M. (1997) The Ecological Detective. Confronting Models with Data (Monographs in Population Biology 28). Princeton: Princeton University Press. 315 pp.
Hinton, G.E. and Nowlan, S.J. (1987) How learning can guide evolution. Complex systems 1, 495–502.
Holland, J.H. (1975) Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 183 pp.
Holling, C.S. (1959) Some characteristics of simple types of predation and parasitism. Can. Entomol. 91, 385–398.
Hopfield, J.J. (1982) Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective properties. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci., USA 79, 2554–2558.
Houston, A., Clark, C., McNamara, J. and Mangel, M. (1988) Dynamic models in behavioural and evolutionary ecology. Nature 332, 29–34.
Hugie, D.M. and Dill, L.M. (1994) Fish and game: a game theoritic approach to habitat selection by predators and prey. J. Fish Biol. 45(Suppl. A), 151–169.
Huse, G. and Giske, J. (1998) Ecology in Mare Pentium: an individual based spatio temporal model for fish with adapted behaviour. Fisheries Res. (in press)
Huston, M., DeAngelis, D. and Post, W. (1988) New computer models unify ecological theory. Bioscience 38, 682–691.
Huth, A. and Wissel, C. (1994) The simulation of fish schools in comparison with experimental data. Ecol. Mod. 75/76, 135–145.
Iwasa, Y. (1982) Vertical migration of zooplankton: a game between predator and prey. Am. Nat. 120, 171–180.
Jachner, A. (1995a) Chemically induced habitat shifts in bleak (Alburnus alburnus L.). Arch. Hydrobiol. 133, 71–79.
Jachner, A. (1995b) Changes in feeding behaviour of bleak (Alburnus alburnus L.) in response to visual and chemical stimuli from predators. Arch. Hydrobiol. 133, 305–314.
Joseph, J. and Sendner, H. (1958) Über die horizontale Diffusion im Meere. Deut. Hydrogr. Z. 11, 49–77.
Jumper, G. Y. Jr and Baird, R.C. (1991) Location by olfaction: a model and application to the mating problem in the deep-sea hatchetfish Argyropelecus hemigymnus. Am. Nat. 138, 1431–1458.
Kalmijn, A.J. (1988a) Hydrodynamic and acoustic field detection. In Atema, J., Fay, R.R., Popper, A.N. and Tavolga, W.N., eds. Sensory Biology of Aquatic Animals. New York: Springer Verlag, pp. 83–130.
Kalmijn, A.J. (1988b) Detection of weak electric fields. In Atema, J., Fay, R.R., Popper, A.N. and Tavolga, W.N., eds. Sensory Biology of Aquatic Animals. New York: Springer Verlag, pp. 151–186.
Kareiva, P. (1994) Space: the final frontier in ecological theory. Ecology 75, 1.
Katz, P.L. (1974) A long-term approach to foraging optimisation. Am. Nat. 108, 758–782.
Ketterson, E.D. and Nolan, V. Jr (1992) Hormones and life histories: an integrative approach. Am. Nat. 140,Suppl. S33–S62.
Kieffer, J.D. and Colgan, P.W. (1992) The role of learning in fish behaviour. Rev. Fish. Biol. Fish. 2, 125–143.
Kobayashi, A. and Kirschvink, J.L. (1995) Magnetoperception and electromagnetic field effects: sensory perception of the geomagnetic field in animals and humans. Adv. Chem. Ser. 250, 367–394.
Kohonen, T. (1984) Self-Organization and Associative Memory. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag. 312 pp.
Kozlowski, J. (1993) Measuring fitness in life-history studies. Trends Ecol. Evol. 8, 84–85.
Langton, C.G. (ed.) (1989) Artificial Life (Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Vol. 6). Reading: Addison-Wesley. 655 pp.
Langton, C.G. (ed.) (1997) Artificial Life. An Overivew. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. 340 pp.
Legac, F., Blaise, O., Fostier, A., Lebail, P.Y., Loir, M., Mourot, B. and Weil, C. (1993) Growth-hormone (GH) and reproduction — a review. Fish Physiol. Biochem. 11, 219–232.
Lehodey, P., Bertignac, M., Hampton, J., Lewis, A. and Picaut, J. (1997) El Niño Southern Oscillation and tuna in the western Pacific. Nature 389, 715–718.
León, J.A. (1993) Plasticity in fluctuating environments. In Yoshimura, J. and Clark, C.W., eds. Adaptation in Stochastic Environments (Lecture Notes in Biomathematics 98). New York: Springer Verlag, pp. 105–121.
Lomnicki, A. (1988) Population Ecology of Individuals. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 223 pp.
Loose, C. and Dawidowicz, P. (1994) Trade-offs in diel vertical migration by zooplankton: the costs of predator avoidance. Ecology 78, 2255–2263.
Lotka, A.J. (1907) Studies on the norm of growth of material aggregates. Am. J. Sci. 24, 199–216, 375–376.
Lotka, A.J. (1925) Elements of Physical Biology. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. 460 pp.
Lu, Z., Popper, A.N. and Fay, R.R. (1996) Behavioural detection of acoustic particle motion by a teleost fish (Astronotus ocellatus): sensitivity and directionality. J. Comp. Physiol. 179A, 227–233.
Luecke, C. and O'Brien, W.J. (1981) Prey location volume of a planktivorous fish: a new measure of prey vulnerability. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 38, 1264–1270.
MacArthur, R.H. and Pianka, E.R. (1966) On optimal use of a patchy environment. Am. Nat. 100, 603–609.
MacCall, A.D. (1990) Dynamic Geography of Marine Fish Populations (Books in Recruitment Fisheries Oceanography, Washington Sea Grant Program). Seattle: University of Washington Press. 153 pp.
McFarland, D.J. (1977) Decision-making in animals. Nature 269, 15–21.
McGurk, M.D. (1986) Natural mortality of marine pelagic fish eggs and larvae: role of spatial patchiness. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 34, 227–242.
McLaren, I.A. (1963) Effects of temperature on growth of zooplankton and the adaptive value of vertical migration. J. Fish. Res. Bd Can. 20, 685–727.
McLaren, I.A. (1974) Demographic strategy of vertical migration by a marine copepod. Am. Nat. 108, 91–102.
McNamara, J.M. (1991) Optimal life histories: a generalisation of the Perron-Frobenius Theorem. Theor. Popul. Biol. 40, 230–245.
McNamara, J.M. (1993) State-dependent life-history equations. Acta Biotheor. 41, 165–174.
McNamara, J.M. (1995) Implicit frequency-dependence and kin-selection in fluctuating environments. Evol. Ecol. 9, 185–203.
McNamara, J.M. and Houston, A.I. (1985) Optimal foraging and learning. J. Theor. Biol. 117, 231–249.
McNamara, J.M. and Houston, A.I. (1986) The common currency for behavioural decisions. Am. Nat. 127, 358–378.
McNamara, J.M. and Houston, A.I. (1990) State-dependent ideal free distributions. Evol. Ecol. 4, 298–311.
McNamara, J.M. and Houston, A.I. (1992) State-dependent life-history theory and its implications for optimal clutch size. Evol. Ecol. 6, 170–185.
McNamara, J.M. and Houston, A.I. (1994) The effect of a change in foraging options on intake rate and predation rate. Am. Nat. 144, 978–1000.
McNamara, J.M. and Houston, A.I. (1996) State-dependent life histories. Nature 380, 215–221.
McNamara, J.M., Webb, J.N. and Collins, E.J. (1995) Dynamic optimisation in fluctuating environments. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. 261B, 279–284.
Mangel, M. and Clark, C.W. (1986) Towards a unified foraging theory. Ecology 67, 1127–1138.
Mangel, M. and Clark, C.W. (1988) Dynamic Modeling in Behavioral Ecology. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 308 pp.
Maynard Smith, J. (1974) The theory of games and the evolution of animal conflicts. J. Theor. Biol. 47, 209–221.
Maynard Smith, J. (1982) Evolution and the Theory of Games. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Maynard Smith, J. (1996) Conclusions. In Runciman, W.G., Maynard Smith, J. and Dunbar, R.I.M., eds. Evolution of Social Behaviour in Primates and Man (Proc. British Academy 88). Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 291–297.
Maynard Smith, J. and Price, G.R. (1973) The logic of animal conflict. Nature 246, 15–18.
Menczer, F. and Belew, K. (1996) From complex environments to complex behaviours. Adap. Behav. 4, 317–364.
Metz, J.A.J. and Diekman, O. (1986) The Dynamics of Physiologically Structured Populations. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Milinski, M. (1979) An evolutionarily stable feeding strategy in sticklebacks. Z. Tierpsychol. 51, 36–40.
Milinski, M. (1993) Predation risk and feeding behaviour. In Pitcher, T.J., ed. The Behaviour of Teleost Fishes, 2nd edn (Fish and Fisheries Series 7). London: Chapman and Hall, pp. 285–305.
Mitchell, M. (1996) An Introduction to Genetic Algorithms. Cambridge: IEEE Press. 205 pp.
Monod, J. (1971) Chance and Necessity: an Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology. New York: Alfred A. Knop. 199 pp.
Montana, J. and Davis, L. (1989) Training feedforward networks using genetic algorithms. In Sridharan, N.S., ed. Eleventh International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Detroit: Morgan Kaufmann, pp. 762–767.
Montgomery, J.C. (1989) Lateral line detection of planktonic prey. In: Coombs, S., Gorner, P. and Muntz, H., eds. The Mechanosensory Lateral Line: Neurobiology and Evolution. New York, Springer-Verlag, pp. 561–574.
Montgomery, J., Coombs, S. and Halstead, M. (1995) Biology of the mechanosensory lateral line in fishes. Rev. Fish. Biol. Fish. 5, 399–416.
Moody, A.L., Houston, A.I. and McNamara, J.M. (1996) Ideal free distributions under predation risk. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 38, 131–143.
Moore, A., Freake, S.M. and Thomas, I.M. (1990) Magnetic particles in the lateral line of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 329B, 11–15.
Murdoch, W.W. (1966) Population stability and life history phenomena. Am. Nat. 100, 5–11.
Mylius, S.O. and Diekmann, O. (1995) On evolutionarily stable life histories, optimisation and the need to be specific about density dependence. Oikos 74, 218–224.
Neill, W.H. (1979) Mechanisms of fish distribution in heterothermal environments. Am. Zool. 19, 305–317.
Noda, M., Gushima, K. and Kakuda, S. (1994) Local prey search based on spatial memory and expectation in the planktivorous reef fish, Chromis chysurus (Pomacentridae). Anim. Behav. 47, 1413–1422.
Nolfi, S., Parisi, D. and Elman, J.L. (1994) Learning and evolution in neural networks. Adapt. Behav. 3, 5–28.
Oksanen, T., Oksanen, L. and Fretwell, S.D. (1992) Habitat selection and predator-prey dynamics. Trends Ecol. Evol. 7, 313.
Olsen, O.A.S. (1989) Structured modelling of fish physiology. Dr. ing. dissertation, ITK, NTH, Trondheim, Norway. Trondheim: ITK-rapport 1989:52-W. 225 pp.
Parisi, D., Cecconi, F. and Nolfi, S. (1990) Econets: neural networks that learn in an environment. Network 1, 149–168.
Parker, G.A. (1982) Phenotype-limited evolutionary stable strategies. In Kings College Sociobiology Group, eds. Current Problems in Sociobiology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 173–201.
Parker, G.A. (1984) Evolutionary stable strategies. In Krebs, J.R. and Davies, N.B., eds. Behavioral Ecology: an Evolutionary Approach. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp. 30–61.
Parslow, J.S. and Gabric, A.J. (1989) Advection, dispersal and plankton patchiness on the Great Barrier reef. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 40, 403–419.
Popper, A.N. (1996) The teleost octavolateralis system: structure and function. Mar. Freshwat. Behav. Physiol. 27, 95–110.
Pyke, H.G., Pulliam, H.R. and Charnov, E.L. (1977) Optimal foraging theory: a selective review of theory and tests. Q. Rev. Biol. 52, 137–154.
Quirk, J.P. (1987) Intermediate Microeconomics. New York: Macmillan. 486 pp.
Reed, M. and Balchen, J.G. (1982) A multidimensional continuum model of the fish population dynamics and behaviour: application to the Barents Sea capelin (Mallotus villosus). Model. Ident. Control 3, 65–109.
Reeke, G.N. and Sporns, O. (1993) Behaviorally based modelling and computation approaches to neuroscience. A. Rev. Neurosci. 16, 597–623.
Reeves, C.R. (1993) Modern Heuristic Techniques for Combinatorial Problems. Oxford: Blackwells.
Riley, G.A. (1946) Factors controlling phytoplankton populations on Georges Bank. J. Mar. Res. 6, 54–73.
Roff, D.A. (1992) The Evolution of Life Histories. Theory and Analysis. New York: Chapman and Hall. 535 pp.
Rogers, P.H. and Cox, M. (1988) Underwater sound as a biological stimulus. In Atema, J., Fay, R.R., Popper, A.N. and Tavolga, W.N., eds. Sensory Biology of Aquatic Animals. New York: Springer Verlag, pp. 131–149.
van Rooij, A.J.F., Jain, L.C. and Johnson, R.P. (1996) Neural Network Training Using Genetic Algorithms (Series in Machine Perception and Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 26). Singapore: World Scientific. 130 pp.
Rosland, R. (1997) Optimal responses to environmental and physiological constraints. Evaluation of a model for a planktivore. Sarsia 82, 113–128.
Rosland, R. and Giske, J. (1994) A dynamic optimisation model of the diel vertical distribution of a pelagic planktivorous fish. Prog. Oceanogr. 34, 1–43.
Rosland, R. and Giske, J. (1997) A dynamic model for the life history of Maurolicus muelleri, a pelagic planktivorous fish. Fish. Oceanogr. 6, 19–34.
Rothschild, B.J. and Osborn, T.R. (1988) Small scale turbulence and plankton contact rates. J. Plankton Res. 10, 465–474.
Rummelhart, D.E., Hinton, G.E. and Williams, R.J. (1986) Learning representations by back propagating errors. Nature 323, 533–536.
Saila, S.B. (1996) Guide to some computerized artificial intelligence methods. In Megrey, B.A. and Moksness, E., eds. Computers in Fisheries Research. London: Chapman and Hall, pp. 8–40.
Salvanes, A.G.V., Aksnes, D.L. and Giske, J. (1995) A surface-dependent gastric evacuation model. J. Fish Biol. 47, 679–695.
Schaffer, W.M. (1983) The application of optimal control theory to the general life history problem. Am. Nat. 121, 418–431.
Schellart, N.A.M. (1992) Interrelations between the auditory, the visual and the lateral line systems of teleosts; a mini-review of modelling sensory capabilities. Neth. J. Zool. 42, 459–477.
Schoener, T.W. (1971) Theory of feeding strategies. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 2, 369–404.
Schoener, T.W. (1987) A brief history of optimal foraging theory. In: Kamil, A.C., Krebs, J.R. and Pulliam, H.R., eds. Foraging Behaviour. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 5–67.
Sibly, R. and McFarland, D. (1976) On the fitness of behaviour sequences. Am. Nat. 110, 601–617.
Slagstad, D., Westgård, T., Olsen, K., Sælid, S. and Balchen, J.G. (1975) Mathematical modelling of population, quality, migration and distribution of important species of fish in an ocean. SINTEF Rapport STF48 A75050, Trondheim, Norway. 119 pp. (In Norwegian).
Smith, R.J.F. (1992) Alarm signals in fishes. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 2, 33–63.
Stearns, S.C. (1992) The Evolution of Life Histories. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 249 pp.
Stephens, D.W. (1981) The logic of risk-sensitive foraging preferences. Anim. Behav. 29, 628–629.
Stephens, D.W. (1996) On the relationship between the feedback control of digestion and the temporal pattern of food intake. Biol. Bull. 191, 85–91.
Stephens, D.W. and Krebs, J.R. (1986) Foraging Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 247 pp.
Sumida, B.H., Houston, A.I., McNamara, J.M. and Hamilton, W.D. (1990) Genetic algorithms and evolution. J. Theor. Biol. 147, 59–84.
Sundby, S. (1997) Turbulence and ichtyoplankton: influence on vertical distributions and encounter rates. Sci. Mar. 61, 159–176.
Sutherland, W.J. (1983) Aggregation and the 'ideal free' distribution. J. Anim. Ecol. 52, 821–828.
Sutherland, W.J. and Parker, G.A. (1992) The relationship between continuous input and interference models of ideal free distributions with unequal competitors. Anim. Behav. 44, 345–355.
Sverdrup, H.U., Johnson, M.W. and Fleming, R.H. (1942) The Oceans. New York: Prentice-Hall. 1087 pp.
Terzopoulus, D., Tu, X. and Grzeszczuk, R. (1995) Artificial fishes: autonomous locomotion, perception, behaviour, and learning in a simulated physical world. Artificial Life 1, 327–351.
Thorpe, W.E. (1963) Learning and Instinct in Animals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 493 pp.
Toquenaga, Y. and Wade, M.J. (1996) Sewall Wright meets artificial life: the origin and maintenance of evolutionary novelty. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11, 478–482.
Tregenza, T. (1995) Building on the Ideal Free Distribution. Adv. Ecol. Res. 26, 253–307.
Tuljapurkar, S. and Caswell, H. (eds) (1997) Structured-population Models in Marine, Terrestrial, and Freshwater Systems (Population and Community Biology Series 18). London: Chapman and Hall. 643 pp.
Turner, J.R.G. and Speed, M.P. (1996) Learning and memory in mimicry. I. Simulations of laboratory experiments. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 351B, 1157–1170.
Tyler, J.A. and Gilliam, J.F. (1995) Ideal free distributions of stream fish — a model and test with minnows, Rhinichthys atratulus. Ecology 76, 580–592.
Tyler, J.A. and Rose, K.A. (1994) Individual variability and spatial heterogeneity in fish population models. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 4, 91–123.
Utne, A.C.W. and Bacchi, B. (1997) The influence of visual and chemical stimuli from cod Gadus morhua on the distribution of two-spotted goby Gobiusculus flavescens (Fabricius). Sarsia 82, 129–135.
Vabø, R. and Nøtestad, L. (1997) An individual based model of fish school reactions: predicting antipredator behaviour as observed in nature. Fish. Oceanogr. 6, 155–171.
Walker, M.M., Diebel, C.E., Haugh, C.V., Pankhurst, P.M., Montgomery, J.C. and Green, C.R. (1997) Structure and function of the vertebrate magnetic sense. Nature 390, 371–376.
Werner, E.E. and Gilliam, J.F. (1984) The ontogenetic niche and species interactions in size-structured populations. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 15, 393–425.
Williams, G.C. (1966a) Natural selection, the cost of reproduction, and a refinement of Lack's principle. Am. Nat. 100, 687–690.
Williams, G.C. (1966b) Adaptation and Natural Selection: a Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 307 pp.
Wright, R. (1994) The Moral Animal. New York: Pantheon Books, Random House. 466 pp.
Yoshimura, J. and Clark, C.W. (1991) Individual adaptations in stochastic environments. Evol. Ecol. 5, 173–192.
Yoshimura, J. and Clark, C.W. (1993) Introduction: historical remarks. In Yoshimura, J. and Clark, C.W., eds. Adaptation in Stochastic Environments (Lecture Notes in Biomathematics 98). New York: Springer Verlag, pp. 1–7.
Yoshimura, J. and Jansen, V.A.A. (1996) Evolution and population dynamics in stochastic environments. Res. Popul. Ecol. 38, 165–182.
Zhivotovsky, L.A., Bergman, A. and Feldman, M.W. (1996) A model of individual adaptive behavior in a fluctuating environment. In Belew, R.K. and Mitchell, M., eds. Adaptive Individuals in Evolving Populations (SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity 26). Reading: Addison-Wesley, pp. 131–153.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Giske, J., Huse, G. & Fiksen, O. Modelling spatial dynamics of fish. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 8, 57–91 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008864517488
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008864517488