Abstract
Salt marshes are no longer viewed as intertidal wastelands of little value to anyone. They are now widely recognised as playing a major role in coastal defence, in wildlife conservation on the coast and as a key source of organic material and nutrients vitally important for a wide range of marine communities. This appreciation of the importance of salt marshes has been brought even more sharply into focus because of the threats posed by predicted rise in sea level as a result of global climatic change. Three decades ago the possibilities of exchanges of organic matter between salt marshes and the sea were already being recognised in certain areas but it is only in the past five years or so that this process has been studied in a wide range of different areas. Detailed studies have been made into the way that salt marsh fluxes change with the development of increasingly mature and, therefore, increasingly complex salt marsh communities. As well as being sources and sinks of mineral nutrients and organic matter, salt marshes can also function as a sink for pollutants that would otherwise be damaging to the environment. Salt marshes also act as a sink for sediment within coastal ecosystems. Through their various functions they can be seen to be acting as dynamic living filters for various ecologically important materials. With increasing threats to the survival of salt marshes as a result of man's activities in the coastal zone being augmented by the threats from predicted sea level rise, a new approach to salt marsh conservation has come to the fore and that is the actual creation of new salt marshes. For this process to be fully effective we have to make full use of our increased understanding of salt marsh structure and function. Following a review of the current state of the art in the field of salt marsh research, an assessment is made of specific future research needs. Despite the greatly increased effort which has been directed to salt marsh research over the past few years we still have to recognise that resources are limited and, therefore, critical evaluations of the various options regarding the direction of our future efforts need to be made.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adam, P. 1990. Saltmarsh Ecology. The University Press, Cambridge.
Allen, J.R.L. 1992. Large-scale textural patterns and sedimentary processes on tidal salt marshes in the Severn Estuary, south-west Britain. Sedimentary Geology 81: 299–318.
Allen, J.R.L. 1994. A continuity-based sedimentological model for temperate-zone tidal salt marshes. Journal of the Geological Society, London 151: 41–49.
Allport, G., O'Brien, M. and Cadbury, C.J. 1986. Survey of Redshank and other breeding birds on salt marshes in Britain. CSD Report No. 649. Nature Conservancy Council: Peterborough.
Anon. 1996. Ontwikkelingen in de Westerschelde, prognose voor de komende 25 jaar. Nota AX-96.009. Rijkswaterstaat, Directie Zeeland, Middelburg.
Anon. 1997. Estuaries: the case for research into morphology and processes. Report SR 478. HR Wallingford.
Anon. 1999. L A B Coastal: Annual Report 1998: Holywell, Cambridgeshire.
Black, K.S. and Paterson, D. M. 1998. (eds). 1998. LISP-UK Littoral investigation of sediment properties: an introduction. pp. 1–10. In: Sedimentary Processes in the Intertidal Zone. Geological Society of London Special Publication No. 139.
Black, K.S., Paterson, D.M. and Cramp, A. 1998. Sedimentary processes in the intertidal zone. Geological Society of London Special Publication No. 139.
Boorman, L.A. 1966. Experimental studies in the genus Limonium. D.Phil. Thesis, University of Oxford.
Boorman, L.A. 1992. The environmental consequences of climatic change on British salt marsh vegetation. Wetlands Ecology and Management 2: 11–21.
Boorman, L.A. 1995. Sea level rise and the future of the British coast. Coastal Zone Topics: Process, Ecology and Management 1: 10–13.
Boorman, L.A. 1999. The functional role of salt marshes in linking land and sea. In: Sherwood, B. (ed.), British Saltmarshes. Linnean Society Special Publication (in press)
Boorman, L.A. and Ashton, C. 1997. The productivity of salt marsh vegetation at Tollesbury, Essex and Stiffkey, Norfolk, England. Mangroves and Salt Marshes 1: 113–126
Boorman, L.A. and Hazelden, J. 1995a. New marshes for old; salt marsh creation in Essex, England. Ocean Challenge 6: 34–37.
Boorman, L.A. and Hazelden, J. 1995b. Saltmarsh creation and management for coastal defence. pp. 175–184 In: Healy, M.G. and Doody, J.P. (eds), Directions in European Coastal Management. Samara Publishing Limited, Cardigan.
Boorman, L.A. and Ranwell, D.S. 1977. The ecology of Maplin Sands and the coastal zones of Suffolk, Essex and North Kent. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology: Norwich.
Boorman, L.A., Goss-Custard, J.D. and McGrorty, S. 1989. Climatic change, rising sea level and the British coast. Her Majesty's Stationary Office: London.
Boorman, L.A., Hazelden, J.H., Andrews, R., and Wells, J. 1994a. Comparative relationships between primary productivity and organic and nutrient fluxes in four salt marshes. pp. 181–199. In: Mitsch, W.J. (ed.), Global Wetlands: Old World and New. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Boorman, L.A., Hazelden, J.H., Loveland P.J. and Wells, J. 1994b. Organic and nutrient fluxes in four north-west European salt marshes. In: Dyer, K.R. and Orth, R.J. (eds), Changes in Fluxes in Estuaries: Implications from Science to Management. Olsen and Olsen: Fredensborg.
Boorman, L.A., Pakeman, R.J., Garbutt, R.A. and Barratt, D. 1996. Results for the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, England. In: Lefeuvre, J.C. (ed.), The effects of environmental exchange on European salt marshes: structure, functioning and exchange potentialities with marine coastal water. Vol. 5. University of Rennes, France.
Boorman, L.A., Garbutt, R.A., Barratt, D., Myhill, D., Evesham, B. Reading, C., Cox, R. and Rothery, P. 1997. Large scale experimental set-back. Final Report. Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food. Vol. 1, Tollesbury, Essex. MAFF: London.
Boorman, L.A., Garbutt, A. and Barratt, D. 1998. The role of vegetation in determining patterns of the accretion of salt marsh sediment pp. 389–399. In: Sedimentary Processes in the Intertidal Zone. Geological Society of London Special Publication No. 139.
Burd, F. 1995. Managed Retreat: A Practical Guide. English Nature, Peterborough.
Burger, J., Shisler, J. and Lesser, F.H. 1977. Avian utilisation on six salt marshes in New Jersey. Biological Conservation 18: 187–211.
Cadwalladr, D.A., Owen, M., Morley, J.V. and Cook, R.S. 1972. Widgeon (Anas penelope L.) conservation and salting pasture management at Bridgwater Bay National Nature Reserve, Somerset. Journal of Applied Ecology 9: 417–425.
Cahoon, D.R. and Reed, D. 1996. Relationships among salt marsh topography, hydroperiod and soil accretion in a Louisiana salt marsh. Journal of Coastal Research 11: 357–369.
Chapman, V.J., 1960 Salt marshes and Salt Deserts of the World. Hill, London.
Clarke, E.A., Sterritt, R.M. and Lester, J.M. 1988. Fate and distribution of TBT in the aquatic environment. Environmental Science and Technology 22: 600–605.
Cochran, J.K., Hirschberg, D.J., Wang, J. and Dere, C. 1998. Atmospheric deposition of metals to coastal waters (Long Island Sound, New York, USA): Evidence from salt marsh deposits. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 46: 503–522.
Costa, M.J., Costa, J.L., Almeida, P.R. and Assis, C. 1994. Do eel grass beds and salt marshes act as preferential nurseries and spawning grounds for fish? An example of the Mira estuary, Portugal. Ecological Engineering 3: 187–195.
Costa, M.J., Lopes, M.T., Domingos, I.M., Almeida, P.R. and Costa, J.L. 1995. Portuguese fauna working group – Tagus and Mira sites. pp. 95–174. In: Lefeuvre, J.C. (ed.), The Effects of Environmental Change on European Salt marshes: Structure, Functioning and Exchange Potentialities with Marine Coastal Waters. Vol. 3. University of Rennes.
Cundy, A.B. and Croudace, I.W. 1996. Sediment accretion and recent sea-level rise in the Solent, southern England: inferences from radiometric and geochemical studies. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 43: 449–467.
Dagley, J.R. 1995. Northey Island: managed retreat scheme; results of botanical monitoring 1991–1994. English Nature Research Report No. 128, Peterborough.
Daiber, F.C. 1977. Salt marsh animals: distributions relating to tidal flooding salinity and vegetation. pp. 79–108. In: Chapman, V.J. (ed.), Wet Coastal Ecosystems. Elsevier: Amsterdam.
Daiber, F.C. 1986. Conservation of Tidal Marshes. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Dame, R. 1989. The importance of Spartina alterniflora to Atlantic Coast estuaries. Aquatic Sciences 1: 639–660.
Danais, M. and Legendre, C. 1986. La Baie de Mont Saint Michel. Premier bilan de Fonctionnement des systèmes ecologique de la Baie de Mont Saint Michel. CEE environnement et IRIEC.
Dankers, N., Binsbergen, N., Zegers, K., Laane, R. and Van der Loeff, M.R. 1984. Transport of water, particulate and dissolved organic and inorganic matter between a salt marsh and the Eems-Dollard estuary, The Netherlands. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 19: 143–165.
Davies, M. 1987. Twite and other wintering passerines on the Wash salt marshes. In: Doody, P. and Barnett, B. (eds), The Wash and its Environment. Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough.
Day, J.W., Smith, W.G. and Wagnet, P.R. 1973. Community structure and carbon budget of a salt marsh and shallow bay estuarine system in Louisiana. Center for Wetland Resources, Publ. No. ISU-SG–72–04. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA.
De Leeuw, J. Wielemaker, A., De Munck, W. and Herman, P.M.J. 1996. Net aerial primary production (NAPP) of the macrophyte Scirpus maritimus estimated by a combination of destructive and non-destructive sampling methods. Vegetatio 123: 101–108.
Dijkema, K.S. 1997. Impact prognosis for salt marshes from subsidence by gas extraction in the Wadden Sea. Journal of Coastal Research, 13: 1294–1304.
Dijkema, K.S., Beeftink, W.J., Doody, J.P. Gehu, J.M., Hydemann, B. and Rivas-Martinez, S. 1984. Salt marshes in Europe. Council of Europe, Nature and Environment Series No. 30: Strasbourg.
Dixon, A.M., Leggatt, D.J. and Weight, R.C. 1998. Habitat creation opportunities for landward coastal re-alignment: Essex case studies. Journal of the Chartered Institute of Water and Environmental Management 12: 102–112.
Doering, P.H., Oviatt, C.A., Nowicki, B.L., Klos, E.G. and Reed, I.W. 1995. Phosphorus and nitrogen limitation of primary production in a simulated estuarine gradient. Marine Ecology Progress Series 124: 271–287.
Dowson, P.H., Bubb, J.M., Lester, J.N. 1996. Persistence and degradation pathways of tributyltin in freshwater and estuarine sediments. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 42: 551–562.
Fletcher, C.A., Bubb, J.M. and Lester, J.N. 1994. Magnitude and distributions of contaminants in salt marsh sediments of the Essex coast, UK. 1. Topographic, physical and chemical characteristics. Science of the Total Environment 155: 31–45.
French, J.R. and Stoddart, D.R. 1992. Hydrodynamics of salt marsh creek systems: implications for salt marsh morphological development and material exchange. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 17: 235–252.
Gerdol, V. and Hughes, R.G. 1993. Effect of the amphipod Corophium volutator on the colonisation of mud by the halophyte Salicornia europaea. Marine Ecology Progress Series 97: 61–69.
Goulding, K.W.T. 1990. Nitrogen deposition to land from the atmosphere. Soil Use and Management 6: 61–66.
Green, R.E., Johnson, T.H. and Collins, D. 1984. An intensive survey of breeding Redshank on the Wash, 1982. Unpublished report, Royal Society for the Protections of Birds: Sandy.
Greenhalgh, M.E. 1975. The breeding birds in the Ribble estuary salt marshes. Nature in Lancashire 5: 11–19.
Gueuné, Y. and Winnet, G. 1994. The transport of the pesticide atrazine from the fresh water of the wetlands of Brittany to the salt water of the Bay of Mont Saint-Michel (France). Institute of Environmental health, A29(4): 753–768.
Havens, K.J., Varnell, L.M. and Bradshaw, J.G. 1995. An assessment of ecological conditions in a constructed tidal marsh and two natural reference tidal marshes in coastal Virginia. Ecological Engineering 4: 117–141.
Hazelden, J. and Boorman, L.A. 1999. The role of soil and vegetation processes in the control of organic and mineral fluxes in some western European salt marshes. Journal of Coastal Research 15: 15–31.
Hemminga, M.A., Huiskes, A.L.H., Steegstra, M. and Van Soelen, J. 1996. Assessment of carbon allocation and biomass production in a natural stand of the salt marsh plant Spartina anglica using 13C. Marine Ecology progress Series 130: 169–178.
Jacobsen, A., Egge, J.K. and Heimdal, B.R. 1995. Effect of increased concentration of nitrate and phosphate during a spring bloom experiment in microcosm. Journal of Experimental Biology and Ecology 187: 239–251.
Kiehl, K., Esselink, P. and Bakker, J.P. 1997. Nutrient limitation and plant species composition in temperate salt marshes. Oecologia 111: 325–330.
King, S.E. and Lester, J.N. 1995. The value of salt marsh as sea defence. Marine Pollution Bulletin 30: 180–189.
Koerselman, W. and Verhoeven, J.T.A. 1992. Nutrient dynamics in mires of various trophic status: nutrient inputs and outputs and the internal nutrient cycle. pp. 397–432. In: Verhoeven, J.T.A. (ed.), Fens and Bogs in the Netherlands: Vegetation, History, Nutrient Dynamics and Conservation. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Lefeuvre, J.C. 1996. The effects of environmental exchange on European salt marshes: structure, functioning and exchange potentialities with marine coastal water. Vols. 1–6. University of Rennes, France.
Lefeuvre, J.C. and Dame, R.F. 1994. Comparative studies of salt marsh processes on the New and Old Worlds: an introduction. pp. 169–179. In: Mitsch, W.J. (ed.), Global Wetlands: Old World and New. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Lefeuvre, J.C., Dankers, N., Boorman, L.A., Loveland, P. and Bettancourt, A. 1993. Comparative Study on Salt Marsh Processes. EEC Contract EV4V-0172-F. University of Rennes, France.
Leggett, D., Bubb, J.M. and Lester, J.N. 1995. The role of pollutants and sedimentary processes in flood defence. A case study: salt marshes of the Essex coast, UK. Environmental technology 16: 457–466.
Marinucci, A.C. 1982. Trophic importance of Spartina alternifolia production and decomposition to the marsh–estuarine ecosystem. Biological Conservation 22: 35–58.
Mitsch, W.J. 1994. Global Wetlands: Old World and New. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Mitsch, W.J. and Gosselink, J.G. 1986. Wetlands. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Moeller, I., Spencer, T. and French, J.R. 1996. Wind wave attenuation over salt marsh surfaces: preliminary results from Norfolk, England. Journal of Coastal research 12: 1009–1016.
Newell, S.Y. 1996. Established and potential impacts of eukaryotic mycelial decomposers in marine/terrestrial ecotones.
Newell, S.Y. and Barlocher, F. 1993. Removal of fungal and total organic matter from decaying Cordgrass leaves by shredder snails. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 171: 39–49.
Newell, S.Y. and Palm, L.A. 1998. Response of bacterial assemblages on standing–decaying blades of Smooth Cordgrass to additions of water and nitrogen. International Review of Hydrobiology 83: 115–122.
Newell S.Y. and Wall, V.D. 1998. Response of salt marsh fungi to the presence of mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls at a Superfund site. Mycologia 90: 777–784.
Newell, S.Y., Moran, W.A., Wicks, R. and Hodson, R.E. 1995. Productivities of microbial decomposers during early stages of decomposition of leaves of a freshwater sedge. Freshwater Ecology 34: 135–148.
Nicol, E.A. 1936. The ecology of a salt marsh. Journal of the Marine Biological Association, UK 20: 203–261.
Nixon, S.W. 1980. Between coastal marshes and coastal waters. Twenty years of research of salt marshes. In: Hamilton, P. and Macdonald, K.B. (eds), Estuarine and wetland processes with emphasis on modelling. Plenum Press, New York.
NRA. 1992. East Anglian Salt Marshes. National Rivers Authority: Peterborough.
Odum, E.P. 1961. The role of tidal marshes in estuarine production. New York State Conservation 16: 12–15.
Odum, E.P. 1968. Energy flow in ecosystems: a historical review. American Zoologist 8: 11–18.
Odum, E.P. 1980. The status of three ecosystem level hypotheses regarding salt marsh estuaries: tidal subsidy, outwelling and detritus-based food chains. In: Kennedy, V.S. (ed.), Estuarine Perspectives. Plenum, New York.
Odum, E.P. and De la Cruz, A.A. 1967. Particulate organic detritus in a Georgia salt marsh–estuarine ecosystem. In: Lauff, G.H. (ed.), Publication 83, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington.
Pederson, M.F. and Borum, J. 1996. Nutrient control of algal growth in estuarine waters. Nutrient limitation and the importance of nitrogen requirements and nitrogen storage among phytoplankton and species of macroalgae. Marine Ecology progress series 142: 262–272.
Pethick, J.S. 1981, Long-term accretion rates on tidal salt marshes. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 51: 571–577.
Pethick, J.S. 1992. Saltmarsh geomorphology. pp. 41–62. In: Allen, J.R.L. and Pye K. (eds), Saltmarshes: Morphodynamics, Conservation and Engineering Significance. The University Press, Cambridge.
Pomeroy, L.R., Shenton, L.R., Jones, R.D. and Reimold, R.J. 1987. Nutrient Flux in Estuaries. In: Likens, G.E. (ed.), Nutrients and Eutrophication. American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, Special Symposium. Allen Press, Lawrence, KS.
Pye, K. 1992. Salt marshes on the barrier coastline of north Norfolk, eastern England. pp. 148–178. In: Allen, J.R.L. and Pye, K. (eds), Saltmarshes: Morphodynamics, Conservation and Engineering Significance. The University Press, Cambridge.
Pye, K. 1995. Controls on long-term salt marsh accretion and erosion in the Wash, England. Journal of Coastal Research 11: 337–356.
Ranwell, D.S. 1972. Ecology of Salt Marshes and Sand Dunes. Chapman & Hall: London.
Reboredo, F. 1992. Cadmium accumulation by Halimione portulacoides (L.) Aellen. A seasonal study. Marine Environmental Research 33: 17–29.
Reed, D.J. 1988. Sediment dynamics and deposition in a retreating coastal salt marsh. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 23: 67–79.
Reed, D.J. 1995. The response of coastal marshes to sea level rise: survival or submergence? Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 20: 39–48.
Rodwell, J.S. 1999. British Plant Communities Volume 5: Maritime Communities and Vegetation of Open Habitats. The University Press: Cambridge.
Roman, C.T., Peck, J.A., Allen, J.R., King, J.W. and Appleby, P.G. 1997. Accretion of a New England (USA) salt marsh in response to inlet migration, storms and sea level rise.
Rozema, J. Arp, W., Letschert, A., Van Esbroek, S. and Punte, H. 1986. A comparison of the mineral relations of a halophytic hemiparasite and holoparasite. Acta Botanica Neerlandica 35: 105–109.
Samiaji, J. and Barlocher, F. 1996. Geratology and decomposition of Spartina alterniflora Loisel in a New Brunswick salt marsh. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 201: 233–252.
Scatolini, S.R. and Zedler, J.B., 1996. Epibenthic invertebrates of natural and constructed marshes of San Diego Bay. Wetlands 16: 24–37.
Scrimshaw, M.D., Bubb, J.M. and Lester J.N., 1994. Magnitude and distribution of contaminants in salt marsh sediments of the Essex coast.. IV. Organochlorine insecticides and polychlorinated biphenyls. Science of the Total Environment 155: 73–81.
Scrimshaw, M.D., Bubb, J.M. and Lester J.N., 1996. Organochlorine contamination of the UK Essex coast salt marsh sediments. Journal of Coastal Research 12: 246–255.
Shimwell, D.W. 1971. The description and Classification of Vegetation. Sidgwick & Jackson: London.
Soderstrom, J. 1996. The significance of observed nutrient concentrations in the discussion about nitrogen and phosphorus as limiting nutrients for the primary carbon flux in coastal water ecosystems. Sarsia 81: 81–96.
Stewart, C.J. and Mora, S.J. 1989. A review of the degradation of tributyltin in the marine environment. Environmental Technology 11: 565–570.
Stevenson, J.C., Ward, L.G. and Kearney, M.S. 1988. Sediment transport and trapping in marsh systems: implications of tidal flow studies. Marine Geology 80: 37–59.
Stumpf, R.J. 1983. The process of sedimentation on the surface of a salt marsh. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 17: 495–508.
Tansley, A.G. 1939. The British Isles and Their Vegetation. The University Press: Cambridge.
Teal, J.M. 1962. Energy flow in the salt marsh ecosystem in Georgia. Ecology 43: 614–624.
Underwood, G.J.C. Microalgal colonisation in a salt marsh restoration scheme. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 44: 471–481.
Valiela, I. and Teal, J.M. 1979 The nitrogen budget of a salt marsh ecosystem. Nature 280: 652–656.
Van Duin, W.E., Dankers, N.M.J.A., Dijkema, K.S., Van Eeden S., Sleutel, A., Wolff, W.J. and Zegers, K. 1996. Results from the Dutch team. In: Lefeuvre, J.C. (ed.), The Effects of Environmental Change on European Salt marshes: Structure, Functioning and Exchange Potentialities with Marine CoastalWaters. Vol. 6. University of Rennes.
Vernberg, F.J. 1993. Salt marsh processes: a review. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 12: 2167–2195.
Westhoff V. and Den Held, A.J. 1975. Planten Gemeenschappen der Nederlanden. Thieme & Cie, Zutphen.
Westhoff, V. and Van der Maarel, E. 1973. The Braun–Blanquet Approach. pp 619–726. In: Whittaker, R.H. (ed.), Handbook of vegetation Science V. Ordination and Classification of Vegetation. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague.
Whittaker, R.H. 1973. Handbook of vegetation Science V. Ordination and Classification of Vegetation. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague.
Widdows, J., Brinsley, M.D., Bowley, N. and Barrett, C. 1998. A benthic annular flume for in situ measurement of suspension feeding/biodeposition rates and erosion potential of intertidal cohesive sediments. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 46: 27–38.
Woodwell, D.M., Whitney, D.E., Hall, C.A.S. and Houghton, R.A. 1977. The Flax Pond Ecosystem Study: exchanges of carbon in water between a salt marsh and Long Island Sound. Limnology and Oceanography 22: 833–838.
Woolnough, S.J. Allen, J.R.L. and Wood W.L. 1995. An exploratory numerical model of sediment deposition over tidal salt marshes. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 41: 515–543.
Wolff, W.J., van Eeden, M.J. and Lammens, E. 1989. Primary production and import of particulate organic matter on a salt marsh in The Netherlands. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 13: 242–255.
Zwolsman, J.G.L. 1994. Seasonal variability and biogeochemistry of phosphorus in the Scheldt estuary, South-west Netherlands. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 39: 227–248.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Boorman, L.A. Salt marshes – present functioning and future change. Mangroves and Salt Marshes 3, 227–241 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009998812838
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009998812838