Abstract
Water movement in freshwater and marine environments affects submersed macrophytes, which also mediate water movement. The result of this complex interaction also affects sediment dynamics in and around submersed macrophyte beds. This review defines known relationships and identifies areas that need additional research on the complex interactions among submersed macrophytes, water movement, and sediment dynamics. Four areas are addressed: (1) the effects of water movement on macrophytes, (2) the effects of macrophyte stands on water movement, (3) the effects of macrophyte beds on sedimentation within vegetated areas, and (4) the relationship between sediment resuspension and macrophytes. Water movement has a significant effect on macrophyte growth, typically stimulating both abundance and diversity of macrophytes at low to moderate velocities, but reducing growth at higher velocities. In turn, macrophyte beds reduce current velocities both within and adjacent to the beds, resulting in increased sedimentation and reduced turbidity. Reduced turbidity increases light availability to macrophytes, increasing their growth. Additionally, macrophytes affect the distribution, composition and particle size of sediments in both freshwater and marine environments. Therefore, establishment and persistence of macrophytes in both marine and freshwater environments provide important ecosystem services, including: (1) improving water quality; and (2) stabilizing sediments, reducing sediment resuspension, erosion and turbidity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ackerman, J. D. & A. Okubo, 1993. Reduced mixing in a marine macrophyte canopy. Funct. Ecol. 7: 305–309.
Almasi, M. N., C. M. Hoskin, J. K. Reed & J. Milo, 1987. Effects of natural and artificial Thalassia on rates of sedimentation. J. Sedim. Petrol. 57: 901–906.
Almquist, J. I. & L. Kautsky, 1995. Plastic responses in morphology of Potamogeton pectinatus L. to sediment and above-sediment conditions in the northern Baltic proper. Aquat. Bot. 52:205–216.
Anderson, M. R. & J. Kalff. 1986. Nutrient limitation of Myriophyllum spicatum grown in situ. Freshwat. Biol. 16: 735–743.
Barko, J. W., M. S. Adams & N. S. Clesceri, 1986. Environmental factors and their consideration in the management of submersed aquatic vegetation: a review. J. Aquat. Plant Manage. 24: 1–10.
Barko, J. W. & R. M. Smart, 1981. Sediment-based nutrient of submersed macrophytes. Aquat. Bot. 60: 877–887.
Barko, J. W. & R. M. Smart, 1983. Effects of organic matter additions to sediment on the growth of aquatic plants. J. Ecol. 71: 161–175.
Barko, J.W. & R. M. Smart, 1986. Sediment-related mechanisms of growth limitation in submersed macrophytes. Ecology 67: 1328–1340.
Barrat-Segretain, M. H. & C. Amoros, 1995. Influence of flood timing on the recovery of macrophytes in a former river channel. Hydrobiologia 316: 91–101.
Barrat-Segretain, M. H. & C. Amoros, 1996. Recovery of riverine vegetation after experimental disturbance: a field test of the patch dynamics concept. Hydrobiologia 321: 53–68.
Bengtsson, L. & T. Hellström, 1990. Redistribution and accumulation of sediments in Lake Erkin. Aq. Fen. 20: 125–133.
Bengtsson, L. & T. Hellström, 1992. Wind-induced resuspension in a shallow lake. Hydrobiologia 241: 163–172.
Best, E. P. H., C. P. Buzzelli, S. M. Bartell, R. L. Wetzel & W. A. Boyd, R. D. Doyle & K. R. Campbell, 2001. Modeling submersed macrophyte growth in relation to underwater light climate: modeling approaches and application potential. Hydrobiologia: 444: 43–70.
Biggs, B. J. F., 1996. Hydraulic habitat of plants in streams. Regul. Riv. Res. and Manage. 12: 131–144.
Bilby, R., 1977. Effects of a spate on the macrophyte vegetation of a stream pool. Hydrobiologia 56: 109–112.
Brewer, C. A. & M. Parker, 1990. Adaptations of macrophytes to life in moving water: Upslope limits and mechanical properties of stems. Hydrobiologia 194: 133–142.
Butcher, R. W., 1933. Studies on the ecology of rivers. I. On the distribution of macrophytic vegetation in the rivers of Britain. J. Ecol. 21: 58–91.
Carignan, R., 1982. An empirical model to estimate the relative importance of roots in phosphorus uptake by aquatic macrophytes. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 39: 243–247.
Carper, G. L. & R. W. Bachmann, 1984. Wind resuspension of sediments in a prairie lake. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 41: 1763–1767.
Chambers, P. A., E. E. Prepas, H. R. Hamilton & M. L. Bothwell, 1991. Current velocity and its effect on aquatic macrophytes in flowing waters. Ecol. Appl. 1: 249–257.
Cowan, J. L. W., J. R. Pennock & W. R. Boynton, 1996. Seasonal and interannual patterns of sediment-water nutrient and oxygen fluxes in Mobile Bay, Alabama (U.S.A.): regulating factors and ecological significance. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 141: 229–245.
Dauby, P. D., A. J. Bale, N. Bloomer, C. Canon, R. D. Ling, A. Norro, J. E. Robertson, A. Simon, J. M. Theate, A. J. Watson & M. Frankingnoulle, 1995. Particle fluxes over a Mediterranean seagrass bed: a one year case study. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 126: 233–246.
Dawes, C. J., S. S. Bell, R. A. Davis Jr, E. D. McCoy, H. R. Mushinsky & J. L. Simon, 1995. Initial effects of hurricane Andrew on the shoreline habitats of southwestern Florida. J. Coast. Res. 21: 103–110.
Dawson, F. H., E. Castellano, & M. Ladle, 1978. The concept of species succession in relation to river vegetation and management. Verh. int. Ver. Limnol. 20: 1429–1434.
Dawson, F. H. & W. N Robinson, 1984. Submersed macrophytes and the hydraulic roughness of a lowland chalkstream. Verh. int. Ver. Limnol. 22: 1944–1948.
Delf, E. M., 1932. Experiments with the stipes of Fucus and Laminaria. J. exp. Biol. 9: 300–313.
Dennison, W. C., 1979. Light adaptations of plants: a model based on the seagrassZostera marina L. MS. Thesis, Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks: 70 pp.
Denny, M.W., 1988. Biology and the Mechanics of theWave-Swept Environment. Princeton University Press, New Jersey: 329 pp.
Dieter, C. D., 1990. The importance of emergent vegetation in reducing sediment resuspension in wetlands. J. Freshwat. Ecol. 5: 467–473.
Dillon, P. J., R.D. Evans & L. A. Molot, 1990. Retention and resuspension of phosphorus, nitrogen, and iron in a central Ontario lake. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 47: 1269–1274.
Doyle, R. D., 2000. Effects of Navigation on Aquatic Plants: Effects of Sediment Resuspension and Deposition on Plant Growth and Reproduction. Upper Mississippi River - Illinois Waterway System Navigation Study, ENV Report, In press.
Dudgeon, S. R. & A. S. Johnson, 1992. Thick vs. thin: thallus morphology and tissue mechanics influence differential drag and dislodgement of two co-dominant seaweeds. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 165: 23–43.
Elwany, M. H. S., W. C. O'Reilly, R. T. Guza & R. E. Flick, 1995. Effects of Southern California kelp beds on waves. J. Waterw. Port Coast. Oc. Engin. 121: 143–150.
Eleuterius, L. N., 1975. Submergent vegetation for bottom stabilization. Estuar. Res. 2: 439–456.
Fanning, K. A., K. L. Carder & P. R. Betzer, 1982. Sediment resuspension by coastal waters: a potential for nutrient re-cycling on the oceans margins. Deep Sea Res. 29: 953–965.
Fonseca, M., 1996. The role of seagrasses in nearshore sedimentary processes: a review. In Nordstrom, K. & C. T. Roman (eds), Estuarine Shores: Evolution, Environments and Human Alterations John Wiley & Sons, London: 261–286.
Fonseca, M. S. & J. A. Cahalan, 1992. A preliminary evaluation of wave attenuation by four species of seagrass. Estuar. coast. shelf Sci. 35: 565–576.
Fonseca, M. S. & J. S. Fisher, 1986. A comparison of canopy friction and sediment movement between four species of seagrass with reference to their ecology and restoration. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.29: 15–22.
Fonseca, M. S. & W. J. Kenworthy, 1987. Effects of current on photosynthesis and distribution of seagrasses. Aquat. Bot. 27: 59–78.
French, T. D., 1995. Environmental Factors Regulating the Biomass and Diversity of Aquatic Macrophyte Communities in Rivers. M.Sc. thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: 145 pp.
French, T. D. & P. A. Chambers, 1996. Habitat partitioning in riverine macrophyte communities. Freshwat. Biol. 36: 509–520.
Gambi, M. C., A. R. M. Nowell & P. A. Jumars, 1990. Flume observations on flow dynamics in Zostera marina (eelgrass) beds. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 61: 159–169.
Gerard, V. A., 1987. Hydrodynamic streamlining of Laminaria saccharina Lamour. in response to mechanical stress. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 107: 237–244.
Gonen, Y., E. Kimmel & M. Friedlander, 1995. Diffusion boundary layer transport in Gracilaria conferta (Rhodophyta). J. Phycol. 31: 768–773.
Grady, J. R., 1981. Properties of seagrass and sand flat sediments from the intertidal zone of St. Andrew Bay, Florida. Estuaries 4: 335–344.
Gregg, W. W. & F. L. Rose, 1982. The effects of aquatic macrophytes on the stream micro-environment. Aquat. Bot. 14: 309–324.
Grizzle, R. E., F. T. Short, C. R. Newell, H. Hoven & L. Kindblom, 1996. Hydrodynamically induced synchronous waving of seagrasses: monami and its possible effects on larval mussel settlement. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 206: 165–177.
Gust, G. & V. Muller, 1997. Interfacial hydrodynamics and entrainment functions of currently used erosion devices. In Burt, N., R. Parker & J. Watts (eds), Cohesive Sediments. John Wiley & Sons, London: 149–174.
Håkanson, L., 1977. The influence of wind, fetch and water depth on the distribution of sediments in Lake Vänern, Sweden. Can. J. Earth Sci. 14: 397–412.
Hamilton, D. P. & S. F. Mitchell, 1996. An empirical model for sediment resuspension in shallow lakes. Hydrobiologia 317: 209–220.
Hanson, M. A. & M. G. Butler, 1994. Responses of plankton, turbidity, and macrophytes to biomanipulation in a shallow prairie lake. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 51: 1180–1188.
Harlin, M.M., B. Thorne-Miller & J. C. Boothroyd, 1982. Seagrasssediment dynamics of a flood-tidal delta in Rhode Island (USA). Aquat. Bot. 14: 127–138.
Haslam, S. M., 1978. River Plants: The Macrophytic Vegetation of Watercourses. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 396 pp.
Heller, D. Y., 1987. Sediment transport through seagrass beds. M.S. Thesis, University of Virginia, Charlottesville: 112 pp.
Hellström, T., 1991. The effect of resuspension on algal production in a shallow lake. Hydrobiologia 213: 183–190.
Henry, C. P., C. Amoros & G. Bornette, 1996. Species traits and recolonization processes after flood disturbances in riverine macrophytes. Vegetatio 122: 13–27.
Hosper, S. H., 1989. Biomanipulation, new perspectives for restoration of shallow, eutrophic lakes in The Netherlands. Hydrobiol. Bull. 23: 5–10.
Hosper, S. H. & E. Jagtman, 1990. Biomanipulation additional to nutrient control for restoration of shallow lakes in The Netherlands. Hydrobiologia 200/201: 523–534.
Hurd, C. L., P. J. Harrison & L. D. Druehl, 1996. Effect of seawater velocity on inorganic nitrogen uptake by morphologically distinct forms of Macrocystis integrifolia from wave-sheltered and exposed sites. Mar. Biol. 126: 205–214.
Hurd, C. L., C. L. Stevens, B. Laval, G. A. Lawrence & P. J. Harrison, 1997. Visualization of seawater flow around morphologically distinct forms of the giant kelp Macrocystis integrifolia from wave-sheltered and exposed sites. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 156–163.
Jaffe, M. J., 1976. Thigmomorphogenesis: a detailed characterization of the response of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) to mechanical stimulation. Zeitschr. Pflanzenphys. 77: 437–453.
James, W. F. & J. W. Barko, 1991. Influences of submersed aquatic macrophytes on zonation of sediment accretion and composition, Eau Galle Reservoir, Wisconsin. Technical Report A-91–1, US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, 23 pp.
James, W. F. & J. W. Barko, 1994. Macrophyte influences on sediment resuspension and export in a shallow impoundment. Lake Res. Manage. 10: 95–102.
James, W. F. & J. W. Barko, 1995. Wind-induced sediment resuspension and export inMarsh Lake, western Minnesota. Technical Report W-95–1, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS: 54 pp.
Jumars, P., J. Eckman & E. W. Koch, 2000. Direct and indirect effects of fluid dynamics on macroscopic benthos. In Boudreau, B.P. & B. B. Jorgensen (eds), The Benthic Boundary Layer: Transport Processes and Biogeochemistry, Oxford University Press, In press.
Keddy, P. A., 1982. Quantifying a within-lake gradients of wave energy: interrelationships of wave energy, substrate particle size and shoreline plants in Axe Lake, Ontario. aquat. Bot. 14: 41–58.
Kenworthy, W. J., J. C. Zieman & G. W. Thayer, 1982. Evidence for the influence of seagrasses on the benthic nitrogen cycle in a coastal plain estuary near Beaufort, North Carolina (U.S.A.). Oecologia 54: 152–158.
Koch, E. W., 1993a. Hydrodynamics of flow through seagrass canopies: biological, physical and geochemical interactions. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. South Florida, St. Petersburg, 123 pp.
Koch, E. W., 1993b. The effects of water flow on photosynthetic processes of the alga Ulva lactuca L. Hydrobiologia 260/261: 457–462.
Koch, E. W., 1994. Hydrodynamics, diffusion-boundary layers and photosynthesis of the seagrasses Thalassia testudinum and Cymodocea nodosa. Mar. Biol. 118: 767–776.
Koch, E. W., 1996. Hydrodynamics of a shallow Thalassia testudinum bed in Florida, U.S.A. In Kuo, J., R. C. Phillips, D.I. Walker & H. Kirkman (eds), Seagrass Biology: Proceedings of an International Workshop: 105–109.
Koch, E. W., 1999. Sediment resuspension in a shallow Thalassia testudinum bed. Aquat. Bot. 65: 269–280.
Koch, E.W., 2000. Beyond light: physical, geological and geochemical parameters as possible submersed aquatic vegetation habitat requirements. Estuaries, In press.
Koch, E. W. & G. Gust, 1999. Water flow in tide and wave dominated beds of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 184: 63–72.
Koehl, M. A. R., 1984. How do benthic organisms withstand moving water? Am. Zool. 24: 57–70.
Koehl, M. A. R., 1986. Seaweeds in moving water: form and mechanical function. In Givnich, T.J. (ed), On the Economy of Plant Form and Function Cambridge Univ. Press, New York: 603–634.
Koehl, M. A. R. & S. A. Wainwright, 1977. Mechanical adaptions of a giant kelp. Limnol. Oceanogr.22: 1067–1071.
Kraemer, G. P. & D. J. Chapman, 1991. Biomechanics and alginic acid composition during hydrodynamic adaptation by Egregia menziesii (Phaeophyta) juveniles. J. Phycol. 27: 47–53.
Kristensen, P., M. Søndergaard & E. Jeppesen, 1992. Resuspension in a shallow eutrophic lake. Hydrobiologia 228: 101–109.
Ladle, M. & H. Casey, 1971. Growth and nutrient relationships of Ranunculus penicillatus var. calcareus in a small chalk stream. Proc. European Weed Res. Soc. 3rd Intern. Symp. on Aquat. Weeds: 53–65.
Leonard, L. A. & M. E. Luther, 1995. Flow hydrodynamics in tidal marsh canopies. Limnol. Oceanogr. 40: 1474–1484.
Lodge, D. M., D. P. Krabbenhoft & R. G. Striegl, 1989. A positive relationship between groundwater velocity and submersed macrophyte biomass in Sparkling Lake, Wisconsin. Limnol. Oceanogr. 34: 235–239.
Losee, R. F. & R. G. Wetzel, 1988. Water movement within submersed littoral vegetation. Verh. int. Ver. Limnol. 23: 62–66.
Losee, R. F. & R. G. Wetzel, 1993. Littoral flow rates within and around submersed macrophyte communities. Freshwat. Biol. 29: 7–17.
Maceina, M. J. & D. M. Soballe, 1990. Wind-related limnological variation in Lake Okeechobee, FL. Lake Reserv. Manage. 6: 93–100.
Machata-Wenninger, C. & G. A. Janauer, 1991. The measurement of current velocities in macrophyte beds. Aquat. Bot. 39: 221–230.
Madsen, J. D., 1991. Resource allocation at the individual plant level. Aquat. Bot. 41: 67–86.
Madsen, J. D., J. A. Bloomfield, J. W. Sutherland, L. W. Eichler & C.W. Boylen, 1996. The aquatic macrophyte community of Onondaga Lake: Field survey and plant growth bioassays of lake sediments. Lake Res. Manage. 12: 73–79.
Madsen, T. V., H. O. Enevoldsen & T. B. Jørgensen, 1993. Effects of water velocity on photosynthesis and dark respiration in submerged stream macrophytes. Pl. Cell Environ. 16: 317–322.
Madsen, T. V. & M. Søndergaard, 1983. The effects of current velocity on the photosynthesis of Callitriche stagnalis Scop. Aquat. Bot. 15: 187–193.
Madsen, T. V. & E. Warncke, 1983. Velocities of currents around and within submerged aquatic vegetation. Arch. Hydrobiol. 97: 389–394.
Marshall, E. J. P. & D. F. Westlake, 1990. Water velocities around water plants in chalk streams. Folia Geobot. Phytotax. 25: 279–289.
Middleton, G. V. & J. B. Southard, 1984. Mechanics of Sediment Movement. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral., 401 pp.
Minckley, W. L., 1963. The ecology of a spring stream, Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Wildl. Monogr. 11: 1–124.
Mork, M., 1996. The effect of kelp in wave damping. Sarsia 80: 323–327.
Newall, A. M. & J. M. R. Hughes, 1995. Microflow environments of aquatic plants in flowing water wetlands. In Hughes, J. M. R. & A. L. Heathwaite (eds), Hydrology and Hydrochemistry of British Wetlands Wiley, Chichester: 363–381.
Oliver, H. R., 1971. Wind profiles in and above a forest canopy. Quart. J. Royal Meteorol. Soc. 97: 548–553.
Petticrew, E. L. & J. Kalff, 1992. Water flow and clay retention in submerged macrophyte beds. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 49: 2483–2489.
Posey, M. H., C. Wingard & J. C. Stevenson, 1993. Effects of an introduced aquatic plant, Hydrilla verticillata, on benthic communities in the upper Chesapeake Bay. Estuar. coast. shelf sci. 37: 539–555.
Preen, A. R., W. J. Lee Long & R. G. Coles, 1995. Flood and cyclone related loss, and partial recovery, of more than 1000 km2 of seagrass in Hervey Bay, Queensland, Australia. Aquat. Bot. 52: 3–17.
Roblee, M. B., T. R. Barber, P. R. Carlson, M. J. Durako, J. W. Fourqurean, L. K. Muehlstein, D. Porter, L. Yarbro, R. T. Zieman & J. C. Zieman, 1991. Mass mortality of the tropical seagrass Thalassia testudinum in Florida Bay (U.S.A.). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 71: 297–299.
Scheffer, M., 1990. Multiplicity of stable states in freshwater systems. Hydrobiologia 200/201: 475–486.
Shaw, R. H., 1977. Secondary wind speed maxima inside plant canopies. J. Appl. Meteorol. 16: 514–521.
Short, F. T., 1980. A simulation model of the seagrass production system. In Phillips R. C. & C. P. McCoy (eds), Handbook of Seagrass Biology: An Ecosystem Perspective. Garland STPM Press, NY: 275–295.
Sirjola, E., 1969. Aquatic vegetation of the river Teuronjoki, south Finland and its relation to water velocity. Ann. Bot. fenn. 6: 68–75.
Søndergaard, M., P. Kristensen & E. Jeppesen, 1992. Phosphorus release from resuspended sediment in the shallow and windexposed Lake Arresø, Denmark. Hydrobiologia 228: 91–99.
Stewart, R. M., D. G. McFarland, D. L. Ward, S. K. Martin & J. W. Barko, 1997. Flume Study Investigation of the Direct Impacts of Navigation-Generated Waves on Submersed Aquatic Macrophytes in the Upper Mississippi River. Technical Report ENV Report 1, US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS: 62 pp.
Strand, J. A. & S. E. B. Weisner, 1996. Wave exposure related growth of epiphyton: implications for the distribution of submerged macrophytes in eutrophic lakes. Hydrobiologia 325: 113–119.
Teeter, A. M., B. H. Johnson, C. Berger, G. Stelling, N. W. Scheffner, M. H. Garcia & T. M. Parchure, 2001. Hydrodynamic and sediment transport modeling with emphasis on shallowwater, vegetated areas (lakes, reservoirs, estuaries and lagoons). Hydrobiologia: 444: 1–23.
Tilman, J. T., R.W. Curry, R. Jones, A. Szmant, J. C. Zieman, M. Flora, M. B. Roblee, D. Smith, R.W. Snow & H. Wanless, 1994. Hurricane Andrews effects on marine resources. BioScience 44: 230–237.
Van Duin, E. H. S., G. Blom, F. J. Los, R. Maffione, R. Zimmerman, C. F. Cerco, M. Dortch & E. P. H. Best, 2001. Modeling underwater light climate in relation to sedimentation, resuspension, water quality and autotrophic growth. Hydrobiologia 444: 25–42.
Van Keulen, M., 1997. Water Flow in Seagrass Ecosystems. PhD Dissertation, Murdoch University, Australia: 260 pp.
Wainright, S. C., 1990. Sediment to water fluxes of particulate material and microbes by resuspension and their contribution to the planktonic food web. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 62: 271–281.
Ward, L. G.,W. M. Kemp & W. R. Boynton, 1984. The influence of waves and seagrass communities on suspended particulates in an estuarine embayment. Mar. Geol. 59: 85–103.
Westlake, D. F., 1967. Some effects of low-velocity currents on the metabolism of aquatic macrophytes. J. Exp. Bot. 13: 187–205.
Westlake, D. F. & F. H. Dawson, 1988. The effects of autumnal weed cuts in a lowland stream on water levels and flooding in the following spring. Verh. int. Ver. Limnol. 23: 1273–1277.
Wheeler, W. N., 1980. Effect of boundary layer transport on the fixation of carbon by the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera. Mar. Biol. 56: 103–110.
Williams, S., 1988. Disturbance and recovery of a deep-water Caribbean seagrass bed. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 42: 63–71.
Worcester, S. E., 1995. Effects of eelgrass beds on advection and turbulent mixing in low current and low shoot density environments. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 126: 223–232.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Madsen, J.D., Chambers, P.A., James, W.F. et al. The interaction between water movement, sediment dynamics and submersed macrophytes. Hydrobiologia 444, 71–84 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017520800568
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017520800568