Abstract
Lignocelluloses are the building blocks of allplants and are ubiquitous to most regions ofour planet. Their chemical properties make it asubstrate of enormous biotechnological value.The basic chemistry of cellulose,hemicellulose, and lignin has a profound effecton lignocellulose tertiary architecture. Theseintricate associations constitute physical andchemical barriers to lignocellulose utilizationand biodegradation in natural and man-madeenvironments. Overcoming these barriers is thekey to unlocking the commercial potential oflignocellulose. Understanding lignocellulosedegradation under natural conditions forms thebasis of any lignocellulose-based application.A variety of microorganisms and mechanisms areinvolved in the complete biodegradation oflignocellulose in natural environments rangingfrom soil and rumen ecosystems to the termitehindgut. The primary objective oflignocellulose pretreatment by the variousindustries is to access the potential of thecellulose and hemicellulose encrusted by ligninwithin the lignocellulose matrix. Currentworking technologies based on the principles ofsolid-state fermentation (SSF) are brieflyreviewed. The use of unsterile lignocellulosicsfor bioremediation purposes holds promise forcost-effective environmental clean-upendeavors. Novel lignocellulose-basedapplications have found functionality intextile, biological control, and medicalresearch fields and might be exploited there inthe near future. Ultimately, lignocellulosewill probably accompany man to his voyages intospace for interest in this field isintensifying. Therefore, proper management oflignocellulose biodegradation and utilizationcan serve to improve the quality of theenvironment, further man's understanding of theuniverse, and ultimately change local economiesand communities.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agosin E & Odier E (1985) Solid-state fermentation, lignin degradation and resulting digestibility of wheat straw fermented by selected white-rot fungi, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 21: 397-403
Akin DE, Rigsby LL, Sethuraman A, Morrison III WH, Gamble GR & Eriksson KEL (1995) Alterations in structure, chemistry, and biodegradability of grass lignocellulose treated with the white rot fungi Ceriporiopsis subvermispora and Cyathus stercoreus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61: 1591-1598
Antai SP & Crawford DL (1981) Degradation of softwood, hardwood, and grass lignocelluloses by two Streptomyces strains. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 42: 378-380
Aristidou A & Penttilä M (2000) Metabolic engineering applications to renewable resource utilization. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 11: 187-198
Arnold JL, Knapp JS & Johnson CL (2000) The use of yeasts to reduce the polluting potential of silage effluent. Wat. Res. 34: 3699-3708
Aucamp A, Danckwerts JE (1989) Grazing Management: A Strategy for the Future. Introduction' National Department of Agriculture, Pretoria, South Africa
Betts WB, Dart RK, Ball AS & Pedlar SL (1991) Biosynthesis and structure of lignocellulose. In: Betts WB (Ed) Biodegradation: Natural and Synthetic Materials (pp 139-155). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany
Blanchette RA, Shaw CG & Cohen AL (1978) A SEM study of the effects of bacteria and yeasts on wood decay by brown-and white-rot fungi. Scan. Elec. Micros. 2: 61-68
Borneman WS, Hartley RD, Morrison WH, Akin DE & Ljungdahl LG (1990) Feruloyl and p-coumaroyl esterase from anaerobic fungi in relation to plant cell wall degradation. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 33: 345-351
Breen A & Singleton FL (1999) Fungi in lignocellulose breakdown and biopulping. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 10: 252-258
Chamberlain K & Crawford DL (2000) Thatch biodegradation and antifungal activities of two lignocellulolytic Streptomyces strains in laboratory cultures and in golf green turfgrass. Can. J. Microbiol. 46: 550-558
Chen J, Fales SL, Varga GA & Royse DJ (1995) Biodegradation of cell wall components of maize stover colonized by white-rot fungi and resulting impact on in-vitro digestibility. J. Sci. Food Agric. 68: 91-98
Chesson A (1981) Effects of sodium hydroxide on cereal straws in relation to the enhanced degradation of structural polysaccharides by rumen microorganisms. J. Sci. Food Agric. 32: 745-758
Colberg PJ (1988) Anaerobic microbial degradation of cellulose, lignin, oligolignols, and monoaromatic lignin derivatives. In: Zehnder AJB (Ed) Biology of Anaerobic Microorganisms (pp 333-372). John Wiley & Sons, New York USA
Cornu A, Besle JM, Mosoni P & Grent E (1994) Lignincarbohydrate complexes in forages: Structure and consequences in the ruminal degradation of cell-wall carbohydrates. Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 24: 385-398
Czerkowski JW (1986) An Introduction to Rumen Studies. Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK, pp 9-10
Deobald LA & Crawford DL (1997) Lignocellulose biodegradation. In: Hurst CJ, Knudsen GR, Stetzenbach LD & Walter MV (Eds) Manual of Environmental Microbiology (pp 730-737). ASM Press, Washington DC, USA
Dizhbite T, Zakis G, Kizimia A, Lazareva E, Rossinskaya G, Jurkjane V, Telysheva G & Viesturs U (1999) Lignin-a useful bioresource for the production of sorption-active materials. Biores. Technol. 67: 221-228
Egland PG, Pelletier DA, Dispensa M, Gibson J & Harwood CS (1997) A cluster of bacterial genes for anaerobic benzene ring biodegradation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 6484-6489
Elder DJ & Kelly DJ (1994) The bacterial degradation of benzoic acid and benzenoid compounds under anaerobic conditions: Unifying trends and new perspectives. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 13: 441-468
Fan LT, Lee YH & Gharpuray MM (1982) The nature of lignocellulosics and their pretreatments for enzymatic hydrolysis. Adv. Biochem. Eng. 23: 157-187
Fillingham IJ, Kroon PA, Willaimson G, Gilbert HJ & Hazlewood GP (1999) A modular cinnamoyl ester hydrolase from the anaerobic fungus Piromyces equi acts synergistically with xylanase and is part of a multiprotein cellulose-binding cellulasehemicellulase complex. Biochem. J. 343: 215-224
Galletti GC, Piccaglia R & Concialini V (1990) Optimization of electrochemical detection in the high-performance liquid chromatography of lignin phenolics from lignocellulosic byproducts. J. Chromatogr. 507: 439-450
Ghosh P & Gangopadyay R (2000) Photofunctionalization of cellulose and lignocellulose fibers using photoactive organic acids. Eur. Polymer J. 36: 625-634
Grethlein HE (1985) The effect of pore size distribution on the rate of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic substrates. Bio/Technol. 3: 155-160
Haigh PM (1994) A review of agronomic factors influencing grass silage effluent production in England and Wales. J. Agric. Engng. Res. 57: 73-87
Hatfield RD, Ralph J & Grabber JH (1999) Cell wall structural foundations: Molecular basis for improving forage digestibilities. Crop Sci. 39: 27-37
Heider J & Fuchs G (1996) Anaerobic metabolism of aromatic compounds. Eur. J. Biochem. 243: 577-596
Heredia A, Jimenez A & Guillen R (1995) Composition of plant cell walls. Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. 200: 24-31
Hodrova B, Kopecny J & Kas J (1998) Cellulolytic enzymes of rumen anaerobic fungi Orpinomyces joyonii and Caecomyces communis. Res. Microbiol. 149: 417-427
Hu WJ, Harding SA, Lung J Popko JL, Ralph J, Stokke DD, Tsai CJ & Chiang VL (1999) Repression of lignin biosynthesis promotes cellulose accumulation and growth in transgenic trees. Nature Biotechnol. 17: 808-812
Jeffries TW (1990) Biodegradation of lignin-carbohydrate complexes. Biodegradation 1: 163-176
Karunanandaa K, Fales SL, Varga GA & Royse DJ (1992) Chemical composition and biodegradability of crop residues colonized by white-rot fungi. J. Sci. Food. Agric. 60: 105-112
Kaylen M, Van Dyne DL, Choi YS & Blasé M (2000) Economic feasibility of producing ethanol from lignocellulosic feedstocks. Biores. Technol. 72: 19-32
Kiyohara H, Matsumoto T & Yamada H (2000) Lignin-carbohydrate complexes: Intestinal immune system modulating ingredients in kampo (Japanese herbal) medicine, juzen-taiho-to. Planta Med. 66: 20-24
Kuhad RC, Singh A & Eriksson KEL (1997) Microorganisms and enzymes involved in the degradation of plant fiber cell walls. Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 57: 45-125
Lee J (1997) Biological conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to ethanol. J. Biotechnol. 56: 1-24
Leonowicz A, Matuszewska A, Luterek J, Ziegenhagen D, Wojtas-Wasilewska M, Cho NS, Hofrichter M & Rogalski J (1999) Biodegradation of lignin by white rot fungi. Fungal Genet. Biol. 27: 175-185
Leschine SB (1995) Cellulose degradation in anaerobic environments. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 49: 399-426
Levine JS (1996) Biomass burning and global change. Volume 1. Remote sensing and inventory development, and biomass burning in Africa. In: Levine JS (Ed) (p 35). The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
Lonsane BK, Ghildyal NP, Budiatman S & Ramakrishna SV (1985) Engineering aspects of solid state fermentation. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 7: 258-265
Lonsane BK, Saucedo-Castaneda G, Raimbault M, Roussos S, Viniegra-Gonzalez G, Ghildyal NP, Ramakrishna M & Krishnaiah MM (1992) Scale-up strategies for solid state fermentation systems. Process Biochem. 27: 259-273
McCarthy AJ (1987) Lignocellulose-degrading actinomycetes. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 46: 145-163
McDonald P (1981) The Biochemistry of Silage. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK, pp 11-12, 168-178
Milstein O, Vered Y, Gressel J & Flowers HM (1981) Biodegradation of wheat straw lignocarbohydrate complexes (LCC) II. Fungal growth on aqueous hydrolysate liquors and particulate residues of wheat straw. Eur. J. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 13: 117-127
Mitchell WJ (1998) Physiology of carbohydrate to solvent conversion by clostridia. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 39: 31-130
Mudgett RE (1986) Solid-state fermentations. In: Demain AL & Solomon NA (Eds) Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology (pp 66-83). American Society of Microbiology, Washington D.C., USA
Mueller-Harvey I & Hartley RD (1986) Linkage of p-coumaroyl and feruloyl groups to cell-wall polysaccharides of barley straw. Carbohydrate. Res. 148: 71-85
Paul EA & Clark FE (1989) Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry. Academic Press, Inc. San Diego, USA
Palmqvist E & Hahn-Hägerdal B (2000) Fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates. I: inhibition and detoxification. Biores. Technol. 74: 17-24
Rayner ADM & Boddy L (1988) Fungal communities in the decay of wood. Adv. Microb. Ecol. 10: 115-166
Reid ID (1989) Solid-state fermentations for biological delignification. Enzyme. Microb. Technol. 11: 786-802
Reid ID (1995) Biodegradation of lignin. Can. J. Bot. 73(Suppl 1): S1011-S1018
Sakagami H, Satoh K, Ida Y, Koyama N, Premanathan M, Arakaki R, Nakashima H, Hatano T, Okuda T & Yoshida T (1999) Induction of apoptosis and anti-HIV activity by tannin-and lignin-related substances. Basic Life Sci. 66: 595-611
Sarikaya A & Ladisch MR (1997) Mechanism and potential applications of bio-ligninolytic systems in a CELSS. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 62: 131-149
Scott GM, Akhtar M, Lentz MJ, Kirk TK & Swaney R (1998) New technology for papermaking: commercializing biopulping. Tappi J. 81: 220-225
Sun RC, Lawther JM & Banks WB (1996) The fractional composition of polysaccharides and lignin in alkaline pre-treated and steam pressure treated wheat straw. Cellulose Chem. Technol. 30: 57-69
Tomme P, Warren RA & Gilkes NR (1995) Cellulose hydrolysis by bacteria and fungi. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 37: 1-81
Trigo C & Ball AS (1994) Is the solubilized product from the degradation of lignocellulose by actinomycetes a precursor of humic substances? Microbiology 140: 3145-3152
Tuor U, Winterhaler K & Fiechter A (1995) Enzymes of white-rot fungi involved in lignin degradation and ecological determinants for wood decay. J. Biotechnol. 41: 1-17
Van Veen JA, Ladd JN & Frissel MJ (1984) Modelling C & N turnover through the microbial biomass in soil. Plant Soil 76: 257-274
Varga GA & Kolver ES (1997) Microbial and animal limitations to fiber digestion and utilization' J. Nutr. 127: 819S-823S
Vered Y, Milstein O, Flowers HM & Gressel J (1981) Biodegradation of wheat straw lignocarbohydrate complexes (LCC). I. Dynamics of liberation of hot aqueous LCCs from wheat straw and partial characterization of the products. Eur. J. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 12: 183-188
Vicuna R (2000) Ligninolysis. A very peculiar microbial process. Mol. Biotechnol. 14: 173-176
Vicuna R, Gonzalez B, Seelenfreund D, Ruttimann C & Salas L (1993) Ability of natural bacterial isolates to metabolize high and low molecular weight lignin-derived molecules. J. Biotechnol. 30: 9-13
Waldrop MP, Balser TC & Firestone MK (2000) Linking microbial community composition to function in a tropical soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 32: 1837-1846
Wheals AE, Basso LC, Alves DMG & Amorim HV (1999) Fuel ethanol after 25 years. TIBTECH 17: 482-487
White GF, Russell NJ & Tidswell EC (1996) Bacterial scission of ether bonds. Microbiol. Rev. 60: 216-232
Wignarajah K, Pisharody S & Fisher JW (2000) Can incineration technology convert CELSS wastes to resources for crop production? A working hypothesis and some preliminary findings. Adv. Space Res. 26: 327-333
Wilson JR & Mertens DR (1995) Cell wall accessibility and cell structure limitations to microbial digestion of forage. Crop Sci. 35: 251-259
Wolfaardt JF, Jacobs A, Rabie CJ, Smit S, Taljaardt JL & Wing-field MJ (1999) Factors affecting colonization of freshly chipped softwood by white-rot fungi. Poster presented at an International Energy Agency Bioenergy Workshop on the Bioconversion of Lignocellulose, Itala Game Reserve, South Africa, 22-26 August
Wubah DA, Akin DE & Borneman WS (1993) Biology, fiberdegradation, and enzymology of anaerobic zoosporic fungi. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 19: 99-115
Zadrazil F & Isikhuemhen O (1997) Solid state fermentation of lignocellulosics into animal feed with white rot fungi. In: Roussos S, Lonsane BK, Raimbault M & Viniegra-Gonzalez G (Eds) Advances in Solid State Fermentation (pp 23-38). Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Malherbe, S., Cloete, T. Lignocellulose biodegradation: Fundamentals and applications. Re/Views in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology 1, 105–114 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020858910646
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020858910646