Abstract
AbstractDuchenne de Boulogne (1862/1990) observed that authentic smiles are distinguished from posed smiles by contractions of the orbicularis oculi muscle that surrounds the eye. Hager and Ekman (1985) subsequently reported that the “Duchenne smile” is discriminated specifically by contractions at the outer corners of the eyes (“crows feet” wrinkles). Little is known of the visuo-cognitive strategies that underpin perception of the Duchenne smile. We examined ocular dynamics (pattern of eye fixations) as an overt and accessible index of these strategies (Stark & Ellis, 1981). The spatio-temporal fixation indices were number and duration of foveal fixations to the crows feet area relative to the total face area. In line with predictions, subjects (n = 58) made proportionately more fixations of longer duration to the crows feet area for smiling, compared to negative (sad) and baseline (neutral) control expressions. It is suggested that a “hardwired” response may be involved in reference to this particular anatomical marker of the genuine smile. Humans may have evolved to distinguish the Duchenne smile because of its important communicative role.
References
Damasio, A.R. (1994). Descartes' error. Emotion, reason and the human brain . London: Picador .Darwin, C. (1872). (1955). The expression of the emotions in man and animals . New York: Philosophical Library (Original work published 1872) .Diedrich, O. , Naumann, E. , Maier, S. , Becker, G. (1997). A frontal positive slow wave in the ERP associated with emotional slides. Journal of Psychophysiology, 11, 71– 84 .Duchenne, B. (1862). (1990). The mechanism of human facial expression or an electro-physiological analysis of the expression of the emotions (A. Cuthbertson, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .Campbell, R. , Brooks, B. , De Haan, E. , Roberts, T. (1996). Dissociating face processing skills: Decision about lip-read speech, expression, and identity. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology, 49, 295– 314 .Ekman, P. (1989). The argument and evidence about universals in facial expressions of emotion. In H. Wagner & A. Manstead (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology: The biological psychology of emotions and social processes (pp. 143-164). New York: Wiley .Ekman, P. , Davidson, R.J. , Friesen, W.V. (1990). The Duchenne smile: Emotional expression and brain physiology II. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 342– 353 .Ekman, P. , Friesen, W.V. (1976). Pictures of facial affect . Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press .Ekman, P. , Friesen, W.V. (1978). The facial action coding system . Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press .Frank, M.G. , Ekman, P. , Friesen, W. (1993). Behavioral markers and recognizability of the smile of enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 83– 93 .Gordon, E. , Coyle, S. , Anderson, J. , Healey, P. , Cordaro, J. , Latimer, C. , Meares, R. (1992). Eye movement response to a facial stimulus in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 31, 626– 629 .Hager, J.C. , Ekman, P. (1985). The asymmetry of facial actions is inconsistent with models of hemispheric specialization. Psychophysiology, 22, 307– 318 .Henderson, J.M. (1992). Visual attention and eye movement control during reading and picture viewing. In K. Rayner (Ed.), Eye movements and visual cognition: Scene perception and reading (pp. 260-283). New York: Springer-Verlag .Hess, U. , Kleck, R.E. (1990). Differentiating emotion elicited and deliberate emotional facial expressions. European Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 369– 385 .Kirita, T. , Endo, M. (1995). Happy face advantage in recognizing facial expressions. Acta Psychologica, 89, 149– 163 .Kirouac, G. , Dore, F.Y. (1983). Accuracy and latency of judgment of facial expressions of emotions. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 683– 686 .Lang, P.J. , Greenwald, M.K. , Bradley, M.M. , Hamm, A.O. (1993). Looking at pictures: Affective, facial, visceral and behavioural reactions. Psychophysiology, 30, 261– 273 .Latimer, C.R. (1988). Eye-movement data: Cumulative fixation time and cluster analysis. Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 20, 437– 470 .Manor, B.R. , Gordon, E. , Williams, L.M. , Rennie, C.J. , Bahramali, H. , Latimer, C.R. , Barry, R.J. , Meares, R.A. (1999). Eye movements reflect impaired face processing in patients with schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 963– 969 .Mazurski, E.J. , Bond, N.W. (1993). A new series of slides depicting facial expressions of affect: A comparison with the pictures of facial affect series. Australian Journal of Psychology, 45, 41– 47 .Morris, J.S. , Frith, C.D. , Perrett, D.I. , Rowland, D. , Young, A.W. , Calder, A.J. , Dolan, R.J. (1996). A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature, 383, 812– 815 .Phillips, M.L. , David, A.S. (1997). Visual scan paths are abnormal in deluded schizophrenics. Neuropsychologia, 35, 99– 105 .Phillips, M.L. , Young, A.W. , Senior, C. , Brammer, M. , Andrew, C. , Calder, A.J. , Bullmore, E.T. , Perrett, D.I. , Rowland, D. , Williams, S.C.R. , Gray, J.A. , David, A.S. (1997). A specific neural substrate for perceiving facial expressions of disgust. Nature, 389, 495– 498 .Simpson, W.E. , Crandall, S.J. (1972). The perception of smiles. Psychonomic Science, 29, 197– 200 .Surakka, V. , Hietanen, J.K. (1998). Facial and emotional reactions to Duchenne and non-Duchenne smiles. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 29, 23– 33 .Williams, L.M. , Loughland, C.M. , Gordon, E. (1999a). Visual scanpaths and recognition of positive and negative facial emotions in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 36, 268– 268 .Williams, L.M. , Loughland, C.M. , Gordon, E. (1999b). Visual scanpaths in schizophrenia: Is there a deficit in face recognition?. Schizophrenia Research, 40, 189– 199 .
