Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

The human health effects of ozone depletion and interactions with climate change

Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer has led to increased solar UV-B radiation (280-315 nm) at the surface of the Earth. This change is likely to have had an impact on human exposure to UV-B radiation with consequential detrimental and beneficial effects on health, although behavioural changes in society over the past 60 years or so with regard to sun exposure are of considerable importance. The present report concentrates on information published since our previous report in 2007. The adverse effects of UV radiation are primarily on the eye and the skin. While solar UV radiation is a recognised risk factor for some types of cataract and for pterygium, the evidence is less strong, although increasing, for ocular melanoma, and is equivocal at present for age-related macular degeneration. For the skin, the most common harmful outcome is skin cancer, including melanoma and the non-melanoma skin cancers, basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. The incidence of all three of these tumours has risen significantly over the past five decades, particularly in people with fair skin, and is projected to continue to increase, thus posing a significant world-wide health burden. Overexposure to the sun is the major identified environmental risk factor in skin cancer, in association with various genetic risk factors and immune effects. Suppression of some aspects of immunity follows exposure to UV radiation and the consequences of this modulation for the immune control of infectious diseases, for vaccination and for tumours, are additional concerns. In a common sun allergy (polymorphic light eruption), there is an imbalance in the immune response to UV radiation, resulting in a sun-evoked rash. The major health benefit of exposure to solar UV-B radiation is the production of vitamin D. Vitamin D plays a crucial role in bone metabolism and is also implicated in protection against a wide range of diseases. Although there is some evidence supporting protective effects for a range of internal cancers, this is not yet conclusive, but strongest for colorectal cancer, at present. A role for vitamin D in protection against several autoimmune diseases has been studied, with the most convincing results to date for multiple sclerosis. Vitamin D is starting to be assessed for its protective properties against several infectious and coronary diseases. Current methods for protecting the eye and the skin from the adverse effects of solar UV radiation are evaluated, including seeking shade, wearing protective clothing and sunglasses, and using sunscreens. Newer possibilities are considered such as creams that repair UV-induced DNA damage, and substances applied topically to the skin or eaten in the diet that protect against some of the detrimental effects of sun exposure. It is difficult to provide easily understandable public health messages regarding “safe” sun exposure, so that the positive effects of vitamin D production are balanced against the negative effects of excessive exposure. The international response to ozone depletion has included the development and deployment of replacement technologies and chemicals. To date, limited evidence suggests that substitutes for the ozone-depleting substances do not have significant effects on human health. In addition to stratospheric ozone depletion, climate change is predicted to affect human health, and potential interactions between these two parameters are considered. These include altering the risk of developing skin tumours, infectious diseases and various skin diseases, in addition to altering the efficiency by which pathogenic microorganisms are inactivated in the environment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. M. Norval, A. P. Cullen, F. R. de Gruijl, J. Longstreth, Y. Takizawa, R. M. Lucas, F. P. Noonan and J. C. Van, Der Leun, The effects on human health from stratospheric ozone depletion and its interactions with climate change, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2007, 6, 232–251.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. X. Tang, S. Wilson and K. Solomon, Changes in tropospheric composition and air quality due to stratospheric ozone depletion, climate change, and their interactions, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2011, 10, DOI: 10.1039/c0pp90039g.

  3. F. R. de Gruijl, J. Longstreth, M. Norval, A. P. Cullen, H. Slaper, M. L. Kripke, Y. Takizawa and J. C. Van, Der Leun, Health effects from stratospheric ozone depletion and interactions with climate change, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2003, 2, 16–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. J. Longstreth, F. R. de Gruijl, M. L. Kripke, S. Abseck, F. Arnold, H. I. Slaper, G. Velders, Y. Takizawa and J. C. Van, Der Leun, Health risks, J. Photochem. Photobiol., B, 1998, 46, 20–39.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. S. Sekelj, I. Dekaris, E. Kondza-Krstonijevic, N. Gabric, J. Predovic and S. Mitrovic, Ultraviolet light and pterygium, Coll. Antropol., 2007, 31, 45–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. E. T. Detorakis and D. A. Spandidos, Pathogenetic mechanisms and treatment options for ophthalmic pterygium: trends and perspectives (Review), Int. J. Mol. Med., 2009, 23, 439–447.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. B. L. Diffey, Sources and measurement of ultraviolet radiation, Methods, 2002, 28, 4–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. L. Zhou, R. W. Beuerman, L. P. Ang, C. M. Chan, S. F. Li, F. T. Chew and D. T. Tan, Elevation of human alpha-defensins and S100 calcium-binding proteins A8 and A9 in tear fluid of patients with pterygium, Invest. Ophthalmol. Visual Sci., 2009, 50, 2077–2086.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. O. M. Oriowo, A. P. Cullen, B. R. Chou and J. G. Sivak, Action spectrum and recovery for in vitro UV-induced cataract using whole lenses, Invest. Ophthalmol. Visual Sci., 2001, 42, 2596–2602.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. R. McKenzie, P. Aucamp, A. Bais, L. Bjorn, M. Ilyas and S. Madronich, Chapter 1. Changes in biologically active UV radiation: Effects of ozone depletion and climate change, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2011, 10, DOI: 10.1039/c0pp90034f.

  11. X. Dong, S. Lofgren, M. Ayala and P. G. Soderberg, Maximum tolerable dose for avoidance of cataract after repeated exposure to ultraviolet radiation in rats, Exp. Eye Res., 2007, 84, 200–208.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. M. Ayala, H. Strid, U. Jacobsson and P. G. Soderberg, p53 expression and apoptosis in the lens after ultraviolet radiation exposure, Invest. Ophthalmol. Visual Sci., 2007, 48, 4187–4191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. L. M. Meyer, X. Dong, A. Wegener and P. Soderberg, Dose dependent cataractogenesis and Maximum Tolerable Dose (MTD(2.3: 16)) for UVR 300 nm-induced cataract in C57BL/6J mice, Exp. Eye Res., 2008, 86, 282–289.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. M. Fris, J. Cejkova and A. Midelfart, Changes in aqueous humour following single or repeated UVB irradiation of rabbit cornea, Graefe’s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol., 2007, 245, 1705–1711.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. M. Fris, J. Cejkova and A. Midelfart, The effect of single and repeated UVB radiation on rabbit lens, Graefe’s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol., 2008, 246, 551–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. V. C. Mody, M. Kakar, A. Elfving and S. Lofgren, Drinking water supplementation with ascorbate is not protective against UVR-B-induced cataract in the guinea pig, Acta Ophthalmol., 2008, 86, 188–195.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. D. N. Hu, G. P. Yu, S. A. McCormick, S. Schneider and P. T. Finger, Population-based incidence of uveal melanoma in various races and ethnic groups, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 2005, 140, 612–617.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. C. M. Vajdic, A. Kricker, M. Giblin, J. McKenzie, J. Aitken, G. G. Giles and B. K. Armstrong, Sun exposure predicts risk of ocular melanoma in Australia, Int. J. Cancer, 2002, 101, 175–182.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. A. Schmidt-Pokrzywniak, K. H. Jockel, N. Bornfeld, W. Sauerwein and A. Stang, Positive interaction between light iris color and ultraviolet radiation in relation to the risk of uveal melanoma: a case-control study, Ophthalmology, 2009, 116, 340–348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. E. A. Holly, D. A. Aston, D. H. Char, J. J. Kristiansen and D. K. Ahn, Uveal melanoma in relation to ultraviolet light exposure and host factors, Cancer. Res., 1990, 50, 5773–5777.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. J. M. Seddon, E. S. Gragoudas, R. J. Glynn, K. M. Egan, D. M. Albert and P. H. Blitzer, Host factors, UV radiation, and risk of uveal melanoma. A case-control study, Arch. Ophthalmol., 1990, 108, 1274–1280.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. E. Weis, C. P. Shah, M. Lajous, J. A. Shields and C. L. Shields, The association between host susceptibility factors and uveal melanoma: a meta-analysis, Arch. Ophthalmol., 2006, 124, 54–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. C. P. Shah, E. Weis, M. Lajous, J. A. Shields and C. L. Shields, Intermittent and chronic ultraviolet light exposure and uveal melanoma: a meta-analysis, Ophthalmology, 2005, 112, 1599–1607.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. E. Triay, L. Bergman, B. Nilsson, C. All-Ericsson and S. Seregard, Time trends in the incidence of conjunctival melanoma in Sweden, Br. J. Ophthalmol., 2009, 93, 1524–1528.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. G. Scelo, P. Boffetta, P. Autier, K. Hemminki, E. Pukkala, J. H. Olsen, E. Weiderpass, E. Tracey, D. H. Brewster, M. L. McBride, E. V. Kliewer, J. M. Tonita, V. Pompe-Kirn, K. S. Chia, J. G. Jonasson, C. Martos, M. Giblin and P. Brennan, Associations between ocular melanoma and other primary cancers: an international population-based study, Int. J. Cancer, 2007, 120, 152–159.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. G. P. Yu, D. N. Hu and S. A. McCormick, Latitude and incidence of ocular melanoma, Photochem. Photobiol., 2006, 82, 1621–1626.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. D. N. Hu, J. D. Simon and T. Sarna, Role of ocular melanin in ophthalmic physiology and pathology, Photochem. Photobiol., 2008, 84, 639–644.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. B. Vojnikovic, S. Njiric, M. Coklo and J. Spanjol, Ultraviolet sun radiation and incidence of age-related macular degeneration on Croatian Island Rab, Coll. Antropol., 2007, 31, 43–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. A. Bialek-Szymanska, M. Misiuk-Hojlo and K. Witkowska, Risk factors evaluation in age- related macular degeneration, Klinika Oczna, 2007, 109, 127–130.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. A. E. Fletcher, G. C. Bentham, M. Agnew, I. S. Young, C. Augood, U. Chakravarthy, P. T. de Jong, M. Rahu, J. Seland, G. Soubrane, L. Tomazzoli, F. Topouzis, J. R. Vingerling and J. Vioque, Sunlight exposure, antioxidants, and age-related macular degeneration, Arch. Ophthalmol., 2008, 126, 1396–1403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. M. Hirakawa, M. Tanaka, Y. Tanaka, A. Okubo, C. Koriyama, M. Tsuji, S. Akiba, K. Miyamoto, G. Hillebrand, T. Yamashita and T. Sakamoto, Age-related maculopathy and sunlight exposure evaluated by objective measurement, Br. J. Ophthalmol., 2008, 92, 630–634.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. T. Q. Pham, E. Rochtchina, P. Mitchell, W. Smith and J. J. Wang, Sunlight-related factors and the 10-year incidence of age-related maculopathy, Ophthalmic Epidemiol., 2009, 16, 136–141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. M. A. Mainster and P. L. Turner, Blue-blocking intraocular lenses: myth or reality?, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 2009, 147, 8–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. M. Dalmas, K. England, M. J. Boffa, J. Degaetano and P. Gatt, Cutaneous melanoma in the Maltese Islands: 2000-2004, Eur. J. Cancer, 2007, 43, 1604–1610.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. E. Richtig, A. Berghold, G. Schwantzer, A. Ott, F. Wolfelmaier, B. Karner, R. Ludwig, H. Denk, R. Stering, G. Leitner, S. Lax, M. Okcu, A. Gerger, H. Kerl and J. Smolle, Clinical epidemiology of invasive cutaneous malignant melanoma in the Austrian province Styria in the years 2001-2003 and its relationship with local geographical, meteorological and economic data, Dermatology, 2007, 214, 246–252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. E. Linos, S. M. Swetter, M. G. Cockburn, G. A. Colditz and C. A. Clarke, Increasing burden of melanoma in the United States, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2009, 129, 1666–1674.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. M. Coory, P. Baade, J. Aitken, M. Smithers, G. R. McLeod and I. Ring, Trends for in situ and invasive melanoma in Queensland, Australia, 1982-2002, Cancer, Causes Control, 2006, 17, 21–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. A. Richardson, L. Fletcher, M. Sneyd, B. Cox and A. I. Reeder, The incidence and thickness of cutaneous malignant melanoma in New Zealand 1994-2004, N. Z. Med. J., 2008, 121, 18–26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. P. J. Salmon, W. C. Chan, J. Griffin, R. McKenzie and M. Rademaker, Extremely high levels of melanoma in Tauranga, New Zealand: possible causes and comparisons with Australia and the northern hemisphere, Australas. J. Dermatol., 2007, 48, 208–216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. AIHW and AACR, Cancer in Australia: an overview, 2008, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare Report No. Cancer series, no 46, Canberra, 2008, http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/can/ca08/ca08.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  41. J. R. Lange, B. E. Palis, D. C. Chang, S. J. Soong and C. M. Balch, Melanoma in children and teenagers: an analysis of patients from the National Cancer Data Base, J. Clin. Oncol., 2007, 25, 1363–1368.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. A. Bono, E. Tolomio, C. Bartoli, A. Carbone, S. Tomatis, S. Zurrida and M. Santinami, Metamorphosis of melanoma. Trends in size and thickness of cutaneous melanoma over one decade at the Istituto Nazionale Tumori, Milan, Tumori, 2008, 94, 11–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. G. Pellacani, G. Lo Scocco, M. Vinceti, G. Albertini, A. A. Raccagni, L. Baldassari, S. Catrani, S. Donelli, P. Ghetti, A. Lanzoni, M. Leardini, M. Reggiani, M. Santini, I. Stanganelli, A. Virgili and S. Seidenari, Melanoma epidemic across the millennium: time trends of cutaneous melanoma in Emilia-Romagna (Italy) from 1997 to 2004, J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol., 2008, 22, 213–218.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. H. Dal, C. Boldemann and B. Lindelof, Does relative melanoma distribution by body site 1960-2004 reflect changes in intermittent exposure and intentional tanning in the Swedish population?, Eur. J. Dermatol., 2007, 17, 428–434.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. A. Montella, A. Gavin, R. Middleton, P. Autier and M. Boniol, Cutaneous melanoma mortality starting to change: a study of trends in Northern Ireland, Eur. J. Cancer, 2009, 45, 2360–2366.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. N. J. Levell, C. C. Beattie, S. Shuster and D. C. Greenberg, Melanoma epidemic: a midsummer night’s dream?, Br. J. Dermatol., 2009, 161, 630–634.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. D. K. Pruthi, R. Guilfoyle, Z. Nugent, M. C. Wiseman and A. A. Demers, Incidence and anatomic presentation of cutaneous malignant melanoma in central Canada during a 50-year period: 1956 to 2005, J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 2009, 61, 44–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. P. M. Karlsson and M. Fredrikson, Cutaneous malignant melanoma in children and adolescents in Sweden, 1993-2002: the increasing trend is broken, Int. J. Cancer, 2007, 121, 323–328.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. D. C. Whiteman, C. A. Bray, V. Siskind, A. C. Green, D. J. Hole and R. M. Mackie, Changes in the incidence of cutaneous melanoma in the west of Scotland and Queensland, Australia: hope for health promotion?, Eur. J. Cancer Prev., 2008, 17, 243–250.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. S. Dobbinson, M. Wakefield, D. Hill, A. Girgis, J. F. Aitken, K. Beckmann, A. I. Reeder, N. Herd, A. Fairthorne and K. A. Bowles, Prevalence and determinants of Australian adolescents’ and adults’ weekend sun protection and sunburn, summer 2003-2004, J. A m. Acad. Dermatol., 2008, 59, 602–614.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. S. J. Dobbinson, M. A. Wakefield, K. M. Jamsen, N. L. Herd, M. J. Spittal, J. E. Lipscomb and D. J. Hill, Weekend sun protection and sunburn in Australia trends (1987-2002) and association with SunSmart television advertising, Am. J. Prev. Med., 2008, 34, 94–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. M. J. Sneyd and B. Cox, Melanoma in Maori, Asian, and Pacific peoples in New Zealand, Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prev., 2009, 18, 1706–1713.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. C. Sinclair and P. Foley, Skin cancer prevention in Australia, Br. J. Dermatol., 2009, 161, 116–123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. H. Dal, C. Boldemann and B. Lindelof, Trends during a half century in relative squamous cell carcinoma distribution by body site in the Swedish population: support for accumulated sun exposure as the main risk factor, J. Dermatol., 2008, 35, 55–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. D. C. Whiteman, C. A. Bray, V. Siskind, D. Hole, R. M. MacKie and A. C. Green, A comparison of the anatomic distribution of cutaneous melanoma in two populations with different levels of sunlight: the west of Scotland and Queensland, Australia 1982-2001, Cancer, Causes Control, 2007, 18, 485–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Y. M. Chang, J. H. Barrett, D. T. Bishop, B. K. Armstrong, V. Bataille, W. Bergman, M. Berwick, P. M. Bracci, J. M. Elwood, M. S. Ernstoff, R. P. Gallagher, A. C. Green, N. A. Gruis, E. A. Holly, C. Ingvar, P. A. Kanetsky, M. R. Karagas, T. K. Lee, L. Le Marchand, R. M. Mackie, H. Olsson, A. Osterlind, T. R. Rebbeck, P. Sasieni, V. Siskind, A. J. Swerdlow, L. Titus-Ernstoff, M. S. Zens and J. A. Newton-Bishop, Sun exposure and melanoma risk at different latitudes: a pooled analysis of 5700 cases and 7216 controls, Int. J. Epidemiol., 2009, 38, 814–830.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. R. T. Vollmer, Solar elastosis in cutaneous melanoma, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2007, 128, 260–264.

    Google Scholar 

  58. C. M. Olsen, M. S. Zens, T. A. Stukel, C. Sacerdote, Y. M. Chang, B. K. Armstrong, V. Bataille, M. Berwick, J. M. Elwood, E. A. Holly, C. Kirkpatrick, T. Mack, J. N. Bishop, A. Osterlind, A. J. Swerdlow, R. Zanetti, A. C. Green, M. R. Karagas and D. C. Whiteman, Nevus density and melanoma risk in women: a pooled analysis to test the divergent pathway hypothesis, Int. J. Cancer, 2009, 124, 937–944.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. V. A. Nikolaou, V. Sypsa, I. Stefanaki, H. Gogas, O. Papadopoulos, D. Polydorou, M. Plaka, D. Tsoutsos, A. Dimou, E. Mourtzoukou, V. Korfitis, E. Hatziolou, C. Antoniou, A. Hatzakis, A. Katsambas and A. J. Stratigos, Risk associations of melanoma in a Southern European population: results of a case/control study, Cancer, Causes Control, 2008, 19, 671–679.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. C. S. Lea, J. A. Scotto, P. A. Buffler, J. Fine, R. L. Barnhill and M. Berwick, Ambient UVB and melanoma risk in the United States: a case-control analysis, Ann. Epidemiol., 2007, 17, 447–453.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. L. K. Dennis, M. J. Vanbeek, L. E. Beane Freeman, B. J. Smith, D. V. Dawson and J. A. Coughlin, Sunburns and risk of cutaneous melanoma: does age matter? A comprehensive meta-analysis, Ann. Epidemiol., 2008, 18, 614–627.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. S. Yarak, M. M. Ogawa, S. Hirata and F. A. de Almeida, Prevalence of acquired melanocytic naevi in Brazilian schoolchildren, Clin. Exp. Dermatol., 2009, 35, 581–587.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. S. L. Harrison, R. MacLennan and P. G. Buettner, Sun exposure and the incidence of melanocytic nevi in young Australian children, Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prev., 2008, 17, 2318–2324.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. K. J. Pettijohn, N. L. Asdigian, J. Aalborg, J. G. Morelli, S. T. Mokrohisky, R. P. Dellavalle and L. A. Crane, Vacations to waterside locations result in nevus development in Colorado children, Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prev., 2009, 18, 454–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. R. B. Setlow, E. Grist, K. Thompson and A. D. Woodhead, Wavelengths effective in induction of malignant melanoma, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 1993, 90, 6666–6670.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. D. L. Mitchell, A. A. Fernandez, R. S. Nairn, R. Garcia, L. Paniker, D. Trono, H. D. Thames and I. Gimenez-Conti, Ultraviolet A does not induce melanomas in a Xiphophorus hybrid fish model, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 2010, 107, 9329–9334.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. E. S. Robinson, R. H. Hill, Jr., M. L. Kripke and R. B. Setlow, The Monodelphis melanoma model: initial report on large ultraviolet A exposures of suckling young, Photochem. Photobiol., 2000, 71, 743–746.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. E. C. De Fabo, F. P. Noonan, T. Fears and G. Merlino, Ultraviolet B but not ultraviolet A radiation initiates melanoma, Cancer Res., 2004, 64, 6372–6376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. P. K. Waster and K. M. Ollinger, Redox-dependent translocation of p53 to mitochondria or nucleus in human melanocytes after UVA- and UVB-induced apoptosis, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2009, 129, 1769–1781.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. A. van Schanke, G. M. van Venrooij, M. J. Jongsma, H. A. Banus, L. H. Mullenders, H. J. van Kranen and F. R. de Gruijl, Induction of nevi and skin tumors in Ink4a/Arf Xpa knockout mice by neonatal, intermittent, or chronic UVB exposures, Cancer Res., 2006, 66, 2608–2615.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. G. Yang, D. Curley, M. W. Bosenberg and H. Tsao, Loss of xeroderma pigmentosum C (Xpc) enhances melanoma photocarcinogenesis in Ink4a-Arf-deficient mice, Cancer Res., 2007, 67, 5649–5657.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. E. D. Pleasance, R. K. Cheetham, P. J. Stephens, D. J. McBride, S. J. Humphray, C. D. Greenman, I. Varela, M. L. Lin, G. R. Ordonez, G. R. Bignell, K. Ye, J. Alipaz, M. J. Bauer, D. Beare, A. Butler, R. J. Carter, L. Chen, A. J. Cox, S. Edkins, P. I. Kokko-Gonzales, N. A. Gormley, R. J. Grocock, C. D. Haudenschild, M. M. Hims, T. James, M. Jia, Z. Kingsbury, C. Leroy, J. Marshall, A. Menzies, L. J. Mudie, Z. Ning, T. Royce, O. B. Schulz-Trieglaff, A. Spiridou, L. A. Stebbings, L. Szajkowski, J. Teague, D. Williamson, L. Chin, M. T. Ross, P. J. Campbell, D. R. Bentley, P. A. Futreal and M. R. Stratton, A comprehensive catalogue of somatic mutations from a human cancer genome, Nature, 2010, 463, 191–196.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. S. van Hattem, M. J. Aarts, W. J. Louwman, H. A. Neumann, J. W. Coebergh, C. W. Looman, T. Nijsten and E. de Vries, Increase in basal cell carcinoma incidence steepest in individuals with high socioeconomic status: results of a cancer registry study in The Netherlands, Br. J. Dermatol., 2009, 161, 840–845.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. D. H. Brewster, L. A. Bhatti, J. H. Inglis, E. R. Nairn and V. R. Doherty, Recent trends in incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancers in the East of Scotland, 1992-2003, Br. J. Dermatol., 2007, 156, 1295–1300.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. F. Bath-Hextall, J. Leonardi-Bee, C. Smith, A. Meal and R. Hubbard, Trends in incidence of skin basal cell carcinoma. Additional evidence from a UK. primary care database study, Int. J. Cancer, 2007, 121, 2105–2108.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. M. P. Staples, M. Elwood, R. C. Burton, J. L. Williams, R. Marks and G. G. Giles, Non-melanoma skin cancer in Australia: the 2002 national survey and trends since 1985, Med. J. Aust., 2006, 184, 6–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. N. M. Richmond-Sinclair, N. Pandeya, R. S. Ware, R. E. Neale, G. M. Williams, J. C. Van, Der Pols and A. C. Green, Incidence of basal cell carcinoma multiplicity and detailed anatomic distribution: longitudinal study of an Australian population, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2009, 129, 323–328.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. J. Lipozencic, R. Jurakic-Toncic, J. Rados and D. Celic, Epidemiology of nonmelanoma and melanoma skin cancer in Zagreb, Croatia, Acta Dermatovenerol. Croatica, 2008, 16, 193–203.

    Google Scholar 

  79. U. Leiter and C. Garbe, Epidemiology of melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer - the role of sunlight, Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 2008, 624, 89–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. F. R. de Gruijl, G. E. Koehl, P. Voskamp, A. Strik, H. G. Rebel, A. Gaumann, J. W. de Fijter, C. P. Tensen, J. N. Bavinck and E. K. Geissler, Early and late effects of the immunosuppressants rapamycin and mycophenolate mofetil on UV carcinogenesis, Int. J. Cancer, 2010, 127, 796–804.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. T. M. Oberyszyn, Non-melanoma skin cancer: importance of gender, immunosuppressive status and vitamin D, Cancer Lett., 2008, 261, 127–136.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. S. Widyarini, D. Domanski, N. Painter and V. E. Reeve, Estrogen receptor signaling protects against immune suppression by UV radiation exposure, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 2006, 103, 12837–12842.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. B. K. Armstrong, A. Kricker and D. R. English, Sun exposure and skin cancer, Australas. J. Dermatol., 1997, 38 (Suppl 1), S1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. R. Zanetti, S. Rosso, C. Martinez, A. Nieto, A. Miranda, M. Mercier, D. I. Loria, A. Osterlind, R. Greinert, C. Navarro, G. Fabbrocini, C. Barbera, H. Sancho-Garnier, L. Gafa, A. Chiarugi and R. Mossotti, Comparison of risk patterns in carcinoma and melanoma of the skin in men: a multi-centre case-case-control study, Br. J. Cancer, 2006, 94, 743–751.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. A. A. Qureshi, F. Laden, G. A. Colditz and D. J. Hunter, Geographic variation and risk of skin cancer in US women. Differences between melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and basal cell carcinoma, Arch. Intern. Med., 2008, 168, 501–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. R. E. Neale, M. Davis, N. Pandeya, D. C. Whiteman and A. C. Green, Basal cell carcinoma on the trunk is associated with excessive sun exposure, J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 2007, 56, 380–386.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. B. Birt, I. Cowling, S. Coyne and G. Michael, The effect of the eye’s surface topography on the total irradiance of ultraviolet radiation on the inner canthus, J. Photochem. Photobiol., B, 2007, 87, 27–36.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. E. Heitzer, A. Lassacher, F. Quehenberger, H. Kerl and P. Wolf, UV fingerprints predominate in the PTCH mutation spectra of basal cell carcinomas independent of clinical phenotype, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2007, 127, 2872–2881.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. S. de Feraudy, K. Ridd, L. M. Richards, P. Y. Kwok, I. Revet, D. Oh, L. Feeney and J. E. Cleaver, The DNA Damage-Binding Protein XPC Is a Frequent Target for Inactivation in Squamous Cell Carcinomas, Am. J. Pathol., 2010, 177, 555–562.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. M. J. Mabruk, L. K. Toh, M. Murphy, M. Leader, E. Kay and G. M. Murphy, Investigation of the effect of UV irradiation on DNA damage: comparison between skin cancer patients and normal volunteers, J. Cutaneous Pathol., 2009, 36, 760–765.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. D. Segerback, M. Strozyk, E. Snellman and K. Hemminki, Repair of UV dimers in skin DNA of patients with basal cell carcinoma, Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prev., 2008, 17, 2388–2392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. L. E. Wang, C. Li, S. S. Strom, L. H. Goldberg, A. Brewster, Z. Guo, Y. Qiao, G. L. Clayman, J. J. Lee, A. K. El-Naggar, V. G. Prieto, M. Duvic, S. M. Lippman, R. S. Weber, M. L. Kripke and Q. Wei, Repair capacity for UV light induced DNA damage associated with risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer and tumor progression, Clin. Cancer Res., 2007, 13, 6532–6539.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. K. M. Applebaum, M. R. Karagas, D. J. Hunter, P. J. Catalano, S. H. Byler, S. Morris and H. H. Nelson, Polymorphisms in nucleotide excision repair genes, arsenic exposure, and non-melanoma skin cancer in New Hampshire, Environ. Health Perspect., 2007, 115, 1231–1236.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  94. E. B. Suarez-Martinez, A. Ruiz, J. Matias, L. Morales, A. Cruz, D. Vazquez, J. Villa and J. L. Matta, Early-onset of sporadic basal-cell carcinoma: germline mutations in the TP53, PTCH, and XPD genes, Puerto Rico Health Sci. J., 2007, 26, 349–354.

    Google Scholar 

  95. G. S. Wang, M. Zhang, X. P. Li, H. Zhang, W. Chen, M. Kan and Y. M. Wang, Ultraviolet B exposure of peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus inhibits DNA methylation, Lupus, 2009, 18, 1037–1044.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. U. G. Sathyanarayana, A. Y. Moore, L. Li, A. Padar, K. Majmudar, V. Stastny, P. Makarla, M. Suzuki, J. D. Minna, Z. Feng and A. F. Gazdar, Sun exposure related methylation in malignant and non-malignant skin lesions, Cancer Lett., 2007, 245, 112–120.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. S. Tommasi, M. F. Denissenko and G. P. Pfeifer, Sunlight induces pyrimidine dimers preferentially at 5-methylcytosine bases, Cancer Res., 1997, 57, 4727–4730.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. R. van Doorn, N. A. Gruis, R. Willemze, P. A. Van, Der Velden and C. P. Tensen, Aberrant DNA methylation in cutaneous malignancies, Semin. Oncol., 2005, 32, 479–487.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. N. F. Box, D. L. Duffy, R. E. Irving, A. Russell, W. Chen, L. R. Griffyths, P. G. Parsons, A. C. Green and R. A. Sturm, Melanocortin-1 receptor genotype is a risk factor for basal and squamous cell carcinoma, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2001, 116, 224–229.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. D. F. Gudbjartsson, P. Sulem, S. N. Stacey, A. M. Goldstein, T. Rafnar, B. Sigurgeirsson, K. R. Benediktsdottir, K. Thorisdottir, R. Ragnarsson, S. G. Sveinsdottir, V. Magnusson, A. Lindblom, K. Kostulas, R. Botella-Estrada, V. Soriano, P. Juberias, M. Grasa, B. Saez, R. Andres, D. Scherer, P. Rudnai, E. Gurzau, K. Koppova, L. A. Kiemeney, M. Jakobsdottir, S. Steinberg, A. Helgason, S. Gretarsdottir, M. A. Tucker, J. I. Mayordomo, E. Nagore, R. Kumar, J. Hansson, J. H. Olafsson, J. Gulcher, A. Kong, U. Thorsteinsdottir and K. Stefansson, ASIP and TYR pigmentation variants associate with cutaneous melanoma and basal cell carcinoma, Nat. Genet., 2008, 40, 886–891.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. U. Brudnik, W. Branicki, A. Wojas-Pelc and P. Kanas, The contribution of melanocortin 1 receptor gene polymorphisms and the agouti signalling protein gene 8818A>G polymorphism to cutaneous melanoma and basal cell carcinoma in a Polish population, Exp. Dermatol., 2009, 18, 167–174.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. E. Alamartine, P. Berthoux, C. Mariat, F. Cambazard and F. Berthoux, Interleukin-10 promoter polymorphisms and susceptibility to skin squamous cell carcinoma after renal transplantation, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2003, 120, 99–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. T. Nagano, M. Kunisada, X. Yu, T. Masaki and C. Nishigori, Involvement of interleukin-10 promoter polymorphisms in nonmelanoma skin cancers-a case study in non-Caucasian skin cancer patients, Photochem. Photobiol., 2007, 84, 63–66.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. M. M. Welsh, K. M. Applebaum, S. K. Spencer, A. E. Perry, M. R. Karagas and H. H. Nelson, CTLA4 variants, UV-induced tolerance, and risk of non-melanoma skin cancer, Cancer Res., 2009, 69, 6158–6163.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  105. M. M. Welsh, M. R. Karagas, K. M. Applebaum, S. K. Spencer, A. E. Perry and H. H. Nelson, A role for ultraviolet radiation immunosuppression in non-melanoma skin cancer as evidenced by gene-environment interactions, Carcinogenesis, 2008, 29, 1950–1954.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  106. S. Gandini, S. Raimondi, P. Gnagnarella, J. F. Dore, P. Maisonneuve and A. Testori, Vitamin D and skin cancer: a meta-analysis, Eur. J. Cancer, 2009, 45, 634–641.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. M. A. Carless, T. Kraska, N. Lintell, R. E. Neale, A. C. Green and L. R. Griffiths, Polymorphisms of the VDR gene are associated with presence of solar keratoses on the skin, Br. J. Dermatol., 2008, 159, 804–810.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. M. L. Kripke, Antigenicity of murine skin tumors induced by ultraviolet light, J. Nat. Cancer. Inst., 1974, 53, 1333–1336.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. G. B. Toews, P. R. Bergstresser and J. W. Streilein, Epidermal Langerhans cell density determines whether contact hypersensitivity or unresponsiveness follows skin painting with DNFB, J. Immunol., 1980, 124, 445–453.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. L. Wang, M. Toda, K. Saito, T. Hori, T. Horii, H. Shiku, K. Kuribayashi and T. Kato, Post-immune UV irradiation induces Tr1-like regulatory T cells that suppress humoral immune responses, Int. Immunol., 2007, 20, 57–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. J. Narbutt, A. Lesiak, M. Skibinska, A. Wozniacka, H. van Loveren, A. Sysa-Jedrzejowska, I. Lewy-Trenda, A. Omulecka and M. Norval, Suppression of contact hypersensitivity after repeated exposures of humans to low doses of solar simulated radiation, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2005, 4, 517–522.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. D. L. Damian, G. M. Halliday, C. A. Taylor and R. S. Barnetson, Ultraviolet radiation induced suppression of Mantoux reactions in humans, J. Invest. Dermatol., 1998, 110, 824–827.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. M. Norval, P. McLoone, A. Lesiak and J. Narbutt, The effect of chronic ultraviolet radiation on the human immune system, Photochem. Photobiol., 2007, 84, 19–28.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. T. Schwarz, 25 years of UV-induced immunosuppression mediated by T cells-from disregarded T suppressor cells to highly respected regulatory T cells, Photochem. Photobiol., 2008, 84, 10–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. F. R. de Gruijl, UV-induced immunosuppression in the balance, Photochem. Photobiol., 2008, 84, 2–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. S. Beissert and K. Loser, Molecular and cellular mechanisms of photocarcinogenesis, Photochem. Photobiol., 2008, 84, 29–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. M. F. Bennett, M. K. Robinson, E. D. Baron and K. D. Cooper, Skin immune systems and inflammation: protector of the skin or promoter of aging?, J. Invest. Dermatol. Symp. Proc., 2008, 13, 15–19.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. R. J. Berkhout, J. N. Bouwes, Bavinck and J. ter Schegget, Persistence of human papillomavirus DNA in benign and (pre)malignant skin lesions from renal transplant recipients, J. Clin. Microbiol., 2000, 38, 2087–2096.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  119. C. A. Harwood, T. Surentheran, J. M. McGregor, P. J. Spink, I. M. Leigh, J. Breuer and C. M. Proby, Human papillomavirus infection and non-melanoma skin cancer in immunosuppressed and immunocompetent individuals, J. Med. Virol., 2000, 61, 289–297.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. L. Struijk, E. Van, Der Meijden, S. Kazem, J. ter Schegget, F. R. de Gruijl, R. D. Steenbergen and M. C. Feltkamp, Specific betapapillo-maviruses associated with squamous cell carcinoma of the skin inhibit UVB-induced apoptosis of primary human keratinocytes, J. Gen. Virol., 2008, 89, 2303–2314.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. M. P. Underbrink, H. L. Howie, K. M. Bedard, J. I. Koop and D. A. Galloway, E6 proteins from multiple human betapapillomavirus types degrade Bak and protect keratinocytes from apoptosis after UVB irradiation, J. Virol., 2008, 82, 10408–10417.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  122. T. Iftner, M. Elbel, B. Schopp, T. Hiller, J. I. Loizou, K. W. Caldecott and F. Stubenrauch, Interference of papillomavirus E6 protein with single-strand break repair by interaction with XRCC1, EMBO J., 2002, 21, 4741–4748.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  123. K. J. Purdie, J. Pennington, C. M. Proby, S. Khalaf, E. M. de Villiers, I. M. Leigh and A. Storey, The promoter of a novel human papillomavirus (HPV77) associated with skin cancer displays UV responsiveness, which is mediated through a consensus p53 binding sequence, EMBO J., 1999, 18, 5359–5369.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  124. N. Sugie, N. Fujii and K. Danno, Cyclosporin-A suppresses p53-dependent repair DNA synthesis and apoptosis following ultraviolet-B irradiation, Photodermatol., Photoimmunol. Photomed., 2002, 18, 163–168.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. A. Fernandez, S. Hu and R. S. Kirsner, Sirolimus: a potential chemopreventive agent, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2008, 128, 2352.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. M. M. Asgari, N. B. Kiviat, C. W. Critchlow, J. E. Stern, Z. B. Argenyi, G. J. Raugi, D. Berg, P. B. Odland, S. E. Hawes and E. M. de Villiers, Detection of human papillomavirus DNA in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma among immunocompetent individuals, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2008, 128, 1409–1417.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  127. O. Forslund, T. Iftner, K. Andersson, B. Lindelof, E. Hradil, P. Nordin, B. Stenquist, R. Kirnbauer, J. Dillner and E. M. de Villiers, Cutaneous human papillomaviruses found in sun-exposed skin: Beta-papillomavirus species 2 predominates in squamous cell carcinoma, J. Infect. Dis., 2007, 196, 876–883.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. A. C. Chen, N. A. McMillan and A. Antonsson, Human papillo-mavirus type spectrum in normal skin of individuals with or without a history of frequent sun exposure, J. Gen. Virol., 2008, 89, 2891–2897.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. C. Ateenyi-Agaba, E. Weiderpass, A. Smet, W. Dong, M. Dai, B. Kahwa, H. Wabinga, E. Katongole-Mbidde, S. Franceschi and M. Tommasino, Epidermodysplasia verruciformis human papillomavirus types and carcinoma of the conjunctiva: a pilot study, Br. J. Cancer, 2004, 90, 1777–1779.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  130. M. L. Tornesello, M. L. Duraturo, K. M. Waddell, B. Biryahwaho, R. Downing, S. Balinandi, S. B. Lucas, L. Buonaguro and F. M. Buon-aguro, Evaluating the role of human papillomaviruses in conjunctival neoplasia, Br. J. Cancer, 2006, 94, 446–449.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  131. M. N. de Koning, K. Waddell, J. Magyezi, K. Purdie, C. Proby, C. Harwood, S. Lucas, R. Downing, W. G. Quint and R. Newton, Genital and cutaneous human papillomavirus (HPV) types in relation to conjunctival squamous cell neoplasia: A case-control study in Uganda, Infect. Agents Cancer, 2008, 3, 12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. X. Sastre-Garau, M. Peter, M. F. Avril, H. Laude, J. Couturier, F. Rozenberg, A. Almeida, F. Boitier, A. Carlotti, B. Couturaud and N. Dupin, Merkel cell carcinoma of the skin: pathological and molecular evidence for a causative role of MCV in oncogenesis, J. Pathol., 2009, 218, 48–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. M. H. Swann and J. Yoon, Merkel cell carcinoma, Semin. Oncol., 2007, 34, 51–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. M. H. Braff and R. L. Gallo, Antimicrobial peptides: an essential component of the skin defensive barrier, Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol., 2006, 306, 91–110.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. R. Glaser, F. Navid, W. Schuller, C. Jantschitsch, J. Harder, J. M. Schroder, A. Schwarz and T. Schwarz, UV-B radiation induces the expression of antimicrobial peptides in human keratinocytes in vitro and in vivo, J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2009, 123, 1117–1123.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. A. Jeevan, A. K. Sharma and D. N. McMurray, Ultraviolet radiation reduces resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in BCG-vaccinated guinea pigs, Tuberculosis, 2009, 89, 431–438.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. L. Wang, K. Saito, M. Toda, T. Hori, M. Torii, N. Ma, N. Katayama, H. Shiku, K. Kuribayashi and T. Kato, UV irradiation after immunization induces type 1 regulatory T cells that suppress Th2-type immune responses via secretion of IL-10, Immunobiology, 2010, 215, 124–132.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. A. Sleijffers, J. Garssen, F. R. de Gruijl, G. J. Boland, J. van Hattum, W. A. van Vloten and H. van Loveren, Influence of ultraviolet B exposure on immune responses following hepatitis B vaccination in human volunteers, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2001, 117, 1144–1150.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. A. Sleijffers, B. Yucesoy, M. Kashon, J. Garssen, F. R. De Gruijl, G. J. Boland, J. Van Hattum, M. I. Luster and H. Van Loveren, Cytokine polymorphisms play a role in susceptibility to ultraviolet B-induced modulation of immune responses after hepatitis B vaccination, J. Immunol., 2003, 170, 3423–3428.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. A. Sleijffers, A. Kammeyer, F. R. de Gruijl, G. J. Boland, J. van Hattum, W. A. van Vloten, H. van Loveren, M. B. Teunissen and J. Garssen, Epidermal cis-urocanic acid levels correlate with lower specific cellular immune responses after hepatitis B vaccination of ultraviolet B-exposed humans, Photochem. Photobiol., 2003, 77, 271–275.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. G. A. Colditz, T. F. Brewer, C. S. Berkey, M. E. Wilson, E. Burdick, H. V. Fineberg and F. Mosteller, Efficacy of BCG vaccine in the prevention of tuberculosis. Meta-analysis of the published literature, JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1994, 271, 698–702.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. N. Linder, Y. Abudi, W. Abdalla, M. Badir, Y. Amitai, J. Samuels, E. Mendelson and I. Levy, Effect of Season of Inoculation on Immune Response to Rubella Vaccine in Children, J. Trop. Pediat., 2009, DOI: 10.1093/tropej/fmp104.

    Google Scholar 

  143. H. K. Muller, R. C. Malley, H. M. McGee, D. K. Scott, T. Wozniak and G. M. Woods, Effect of UV radiation on the neonatal skin immune system- implications for melanoma, Photochem. Photobiol., 2007, 84, 47–54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. C. Kannengiesser, A. Spatz, S. Michiels, A. Eychene, P. Dessen, V. Lazar, V. Winnepenninckx, F. Lesueur, S. Druillennec, C. Robert, J. J. Van, Den Oord, A. Sarasin and B. Bressac-de Paillerets, Gene expression signature associated with BRAF mutations in human primary cutaneous melanomas, Mol. Oncol., 2008, 1, 425–430.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  145. P. N. Nikolova, G. P. Pawelec, S. M. Mihailova, M. I. Ivanova, A. P. Myhailova, D. N. Baltadjieva, D. I. Marinova, S. S. Ivanova and E. J. Naumova, Association of cytokine gene polymorphisms with malignant melanoma in Caucasian population, Cancer Immunol. Immunother., 2006, 56, 371–379.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. N. Schoof, F. von Bonin, I. R. Konig, R. Mossner, U. Kruger, K. Reich, C. Berking, M. Volkenandt, A. Ziegler, L. Bockmann, C. Kuschal, K. M. Thoms, D. Kube and S. Emmert, Distal and proximal interleukin (IL)-10 promoter polymorphisms associated with risk of cutaneous melanoma development: a case-control study, Genes Immun., 2009, 10, 586–590.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. D. Wakita, K. Chamoto, T. Ohkuri, Y. Narita, S. Ashino, K. Sumida, H. Nishikawa, H. Shiku, Y. Togashi, H. Kitamura and T. Nishimura, IFN-gamma-dependent type 1 immunity is crucial for immunosurveillance against squamous cell carcinoma in a novel mouse carcinogenesis model, Carcinogenesis, 2009, 30, 1408–1415.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. R. A. Clark, S. J. Huang, G. F. Murphy, I. G. Mollet, D. Hijnen, M. Muthukuru, C. F. Schanbacher, V. Edwards, D. M. Miller, J. E. Kim, J. Lambert and T. S. Kupper, Human squamous cell carcinomas evade the immune response by down-regulation of vascular E-selectin and recruitment of regulatory T cells, J. Exp. Med., 2008, 205, 2221–2234.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  149. H. G. Kaporis, E. Guttman-Yassky, M. A. Lowes, A. S. Haider, J. Fuentes-Duculan, K. Darabi, J. Whynot-Ertelt, A. Khatcherian, I. Cardinale, I. Novitskaya, J. G. Krueger and J. A. Carucci, Human basal cell carcinoma is associated with Foxp3+ T cells in a Th2 dominant microenvironment, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2007, 127, 2391–2398.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. T. Gambichler, M. Skrygan, J. Hyun, F. Bechara, N. S. Tomi, P. Altmeyer and A. Kreuter, Cytokine mRNA expression in basal cell carcinoma, Arch. Dermatol. Res., 2006, 298, 139–141.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. L. E. Rhodes, M. Bock, A. S. Janssens, T. C. Ling, L. Anastasopoulou, C. Antoniou, F. Aubin, T. Bruckner, B. Faivre, N. K. Gibbs, C. Jansen, S. Pavel, A. J. Stratigos, F. R. de Gruijl and T. L. Diepgen, Polymorphic light eruption occurs in 18% of europeans and does not show higher prevalence with increasing latitude: multicenter survey of 6, 895 individuals residing from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2010, 130, 626–628.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. P. Wolf, S. N. Byrne and A. Gruber-Wackernagel, New insights into the mechanisms of polymorphic light eruption: resistance to ultraviolet radiation-induced immune suppression as an aetiological factor, Exp. Dermatol., 2009, 18, 350–356.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. S. Lembo, J. Fallon, P. O’Kelly and G. M. Murphy, Polymorphic light eruption and skin cancer prevalence: is one protective against the other?, Br. J. Dermatol., 2008, 159, 1342–1347.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. T. J. Wang, F. Zhang, J. B. Richards, B. Kestenbaum, J. B. van Meurs, D. Berry, D. P. Kiel, E. A. Streeten, C. Ohlsson, D. L. Koller, L. Peltonen, J. D. Cooper, P. F. O’Reilly, D. K. Houston, N. L. Glazer, L. Vandenput, M. Peacock, J. Shi, F. Rivadeneira, M. I. McCarthy, P. Anneli, I. H. de Boer, M. Mangino, B. Kato, D. J. Smyth, S. L. Booth, P. F. Jacques, G. L. Burke, M. Goodarzi, C. L. Cheung, M. Wolf, K. Rice, D. Goltzman, N. Hidiroglou, M. Ladouceur, N. J. Wareham, L. J. Hocking, D. Hart, N. K. Arden, C. Cooper, S. Malik, W. D. Fraser, A. L. Hartikainen, G. Zhai, H. M. Macdonald, N. G. Forouhi, R. J. Loos, D. M. Reid, A. Hakim, E. Dennison, Y. Liu, C. Power, H. E. Stevens, L. Jaana, R. S. Vasan, N. Soranzo, J. Bojunga, B. M. Psaty, M. Lorentzon, T. Foroud, T. B. Harris, A. Hofman, J. O. Jansson, J. A. Cauley, A. G. Uitterlinden, Q. Gibson, M. R. Jarvelin, D. Karasik, D. S. Siscovick, M. J. Econs, S. B. Kritchevsky, J. C. Florez, J. A. Todd, J. Dupuis, E. Hypponen and T. D. Spector, Common genetic determinants of vitamin D insufficiency: a genome-wide association study, Lancet, 2010, 376, 180–188.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  155. E. Thieden, P. A. Philipsen, J. Heydenreich and H. C. Wulf, Vitamin D level in summer and winter related to measured UVR exposure and behavior, Photochem. Photobiol., 2009, 85, 1480–1484.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. H. M. Macdonald, A. Mavroeidi, R. J. Barr, A. J. Black, W. D. Fraser and D. M. Reid, Vitamin D status in postmenopausal women living at higher latitudes in the UK. in relation to bone health, overweight, sunlight exposure and dietary vitamin D, Bone, 2008, 42, 996–1003.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. H. E. Hanwell, R. Vieth, D. E. Cole, A. Scillitani, S. Modoni, V. Frusciante, G. Ritrovato, I. Chiodini, S. Minisola and V. Carnevale, Sun exposure questionnaire predicts circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in Caucasian hospital workers in southern Italy, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 2010, 121, 334–337.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. B. L. Diffey, Modelling the seasonal variation of vitamin D due to sun exposure, Br. J. Dermatol., 2010, 162, 1342–1348.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. M. F. Holick, Vitamin D: A millenium perspective, J. Cell. Biochem., 2003, 88, 296–307.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. M. F. Holick, The vitamin D deficiency pandemic and consequences for nonskeletal health: mechanisms of action, Mol. Aspects Med., 2008, 29, 361–368.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  161. H. A. Bischoff-Ferrari, E. Giovannucci, W. C. Willett, T. Dietrich and B. Dawson-Hughes, Estimation of optimal serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for multiple health outcomes, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2006, 84, 18–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. B. Dawson-Hughes, R. P. Heaney, M. F. Holick, P. Lips, P. J. Meunier and R. Vieth, Estimates of optimal vitamin D status, Osteoporosis Int., 2005, 16, 713–716.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. B. W. Hollis, Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels indicative of vitamin D sufficiency: implications for establishing a new effective dietary intake recommendation for vitamin D, J. Nutr., 2005, 135, 317–322.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. J. J. Cannell and B. W. Hollis, Use of vitamin D in clinical practice, Altern. Med. Rev., 2008, 13, 6–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. W. B. Grant and G. E. Schuitemaker, Health benefits of higher serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in The Netherlands, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 2010, 121, 456–458.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. SACN, Update on vitamin D: Position Statement by the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition Report No., London, 2007, http://www.sacn.gov.uk/pdfs/sacn_position_vitamin_d_2007_05_07.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  167. K. K. Reddy and B. A. Gilchrest, What is all this commotion about vitamin D?, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2010, 130, 321–326.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. R. Z. Stolzenberg-Solomon, E. J. Jacobs, A. A. Arslan, D. Qi, A. V. Patel, K. J. Helzlsouer, S. J. Weinstein, M. L. McCullough, M. P. Purdue, X. O. Shu, K. Snyder, J. Virtamo, L. R. Wilkins, K. Yu, A. Zeleniuch-Jacquotte, W. Zheng, D. Albanes, Q. Cai, C. Harvey, R. Hayes, S. Clipp, R. L. Horst, L. Irish, K. Koenig, L. Le, Marchand and L. N. Kolonel, Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of pancreatic cancer: Cohort Consortium Vitamin D Pooling Project of Rarer Cancers, Am. J. Epidemiol., 2010, 172, 81–93.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  169. J. A. MacLaughlin, R. R. Anderson and M. F. Holick, Spectral character of sunlight modulates photosynthesis of previtamin D3 and its photoisomers in human skin, Science, 1982, 216, 1001–1003.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. M. Norval, L. O. Bjorn and F. R. de Gruijl, Is the action spectrum for the UV-induced production of previtamin D3 in human skin correct?, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2010, 9, 11–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. CIE, Action Spectrum for the Production of Previtamin D3 in Human Skin, Commission Internationale d’Eclairage Report No. CIE Technical report 174-2006 Vienna, 2006, http://www.cie.co.at/div6/cie_174-2006.htm.

    Google Scholar 

  172. S. J. Pope, M. F. Holick, S. Mackin and D. E. Godar, Action spectrum conversion factors that change erythemally weighted to previtamin D3-weighted UV doses, Photochem. Photobiol., 2008, 84, 1277–1283.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. M. G. Kimlin and K. A. Schallhorn, Estimations of the human ‘vitamin D’ UV exposure in the USA, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2004, 3, 1067–1070.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. A. Kazantzidis, A. F. Bais, M. M. Zempila, S. Kazadzis, P. N. den Outer, T. Koskela and H. Slaper, Calculations of the human vitamin D exposure from UV spectral measurements at three European stations, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2009, 8, 45–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. R. L. McKenzie, J. B. Liley and L. O. Bjorn, UV radiation: balancing risks and benefits, Photochem. Photobiol., 2009, 85, 88–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. V. E. Fioletov, L. J. McArthur, T. W. Mathews and L. Marrett, Estimated ultraviolet exposure levels for a sufficient vitamin D status in North America, J. Photochem. Photobiol., B, 2010, 100, 57–66.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. L. E. Rhodes, A. R. Webb, H. I. Fraser, R. Kift, M. T. Durkin, D. Allan, S. J. O’Brien, A. Vail and J. L. Berry, Recommended Summer Sunlight Exposure Levels Can Produce Sufficient (≥20 ng ml-1) but Not the Proposed Optimal (≥32 ng ml-1) 25(OH)D Levels at UK. Latitudes, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2010, 130, 1411–1418.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. B. L. Diffey, Is casual exposure to summer sunlight effective at maintaining adequate vitamin D status?, Photodermatol., Photoimmunol. Photomed., 2010, 26, 172–176.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. T. L. Clemens, J. S. Adams, S. L. Henderson and M. F. Holick, Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of skin to synthesise vitamin D3, Lancet, 1982, 319, 74–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  180. J. MacLaughlin and M. F. Holick, Aging decreases the capacity of human skin to produce vitamin D3, J. Clin. Invest., 1985, 76, 1536–1538.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  181. M. Blum, G. Dolnikowski, E. Seyoum, S. S. Harris, S. L. Booth, J. Peterson, E. Saltzman and B. Dawson-Hughes, Vitamin D(3) in fat tissue, Endocrine, 2008, 33, 90–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  182. M. K. Bogh, A. V. Schmedes, P. A. Philipsen, E. Thieden and H. C. Wulf, Vitamin D production after UVB exposure depends on baseline vitamin D and total cholesterol but not on skin pigmentation, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2010, 130, 546–553.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. W. A. Bruls, H. Slaper, J. C. Van, Der Leun and L. Berrens, Transmission of human epidermis and stratum corneum as a function of thickness in the ultraviolet and visible wavelengths, Photochem. Photobiol., 1984, 40, 485–494.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. E. A. Yetley, Assessing the vitamin D status of the US population, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2008, 88, 558S–564S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. V. Hirani, K. Tull, A. Ali and J. Mindell, Urgent action needed to improve vitamin D status among older people in England!, Age Ageing, 2010, 39, 62–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. A. A. Ginde, M. C. Liu and C. A. Camargo, Jr., Demographic differences and trends of vitamin D insufficiency in the US population, 1988-2004, Arch. Intern. Med., 2009, 169, 626–632.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  187. T. Hagenau, R. Vest, T. N. Gissel, C. S. Poulsen, M. Erlandsen, L. Mosekilde and P. Vestergaard, Global vitamin D levels in relation to age, gender, skin pigmentation and latitude: an ecologic metaregression analysis, Osteoporosis Int., 2009, 20, 133–140.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. P. Lips, T. Duong, A. Oleksik, D. Black, S. Cummings, D. Cox and T. Nickelsen, A global study of vitamin D status and parathyroid function in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: baseline data from the multiple outcomes of raloxifene evaluation clinical trial, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2001, 86, 1212–1221.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. N. O. Kuchuk, N. M. van Schoor, S. M. Pluijm, A. Chines and P. Lips, Vitamin D status, parathyroid function, bone turnover, and BMD in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: global perspective, J. Bone Miner. Res., 2009, 24, 693–701.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. L. E. Jeffery, F. Burke, M. Mura, Y. Zheng, O. S. Qureshi, M. Hewison, L. S. Walker, D. A. Lammas, K. Raza and D. M. Sansom, 1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and IL-2 combine to inhibit T cell production of inflammatory cytokines and promote development of regulatory T cells expressing CTLA-4 and FoxP3, J. Immunol., 2009, 183, 5458–5467.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. M. T. Cantorna, S. Yu and D. Bruce, The paradoxical effects of vitamin D on type 1 mediated immunity, Mol. Aspects Med., 2008, 29, 369–375.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  192. J. H. White, Vitamin D signaling, infectious diseases, and regulation of innate immunity, Infect. Immun., 2008, 76, 3837–3843.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  193. C. F. Garland, E. D. Gorham, S. B. Mohr and F. C. Garland, Vitamin D for cancer prevention: global perspective, Ann. Epidemiol., 2009, 19, 468–483.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. W. B. Grant and S. B. Mohr, Ecological studies of ultraviolet B, vitamin D and cancer since 2000, Ann. Epidemiol., 2009, 19, 446–454.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. IARC, Vitamin D and Cancer, World Health Organization International Agency for Research on Cancer Report No. IARC Working Group Reports; 5, Lyon, 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  196. W. B. Grant, A critical review of Vitamin D and Cancer: A report of the IARC Working Group, Dermato-Endocrinology, 2009, 1, 25–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  197. T. Byers, Anticancer vitamins du Jour-The ABCED’s so far, Am. J. Epidemiol., 2010, 172, 1–3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  198. M. Y. Wei, C. F. Garland, E. D. Gorham, S. B. Mohr and E. Giovannucci, Vitamin D and prevention of colorectal adenoma: a meta-analysis, Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prev., 2008, 17, 2958–2969.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. E. D. Gorham, C. F. Garland, F. C. Garland, W. B. Grant, S. B. Mohr, M. Lipkin, H. L. Newmark, E. Giovannucci, M. Wei and M. F. Holick, Optimal vitamin D status for colorectal cancer prevention: a quantitative meta analysis, Am. J. Ind. Health., 2007, 32, 210–216.

    Google Scholar 

  200. C. G. Woolcott, L. R. Wilkens, A. M. Nomura, R. L. Horst, M. T. Goodman, S. P. Murphy, B. E. Henderson, L. N. Kolonel and L. Le Marchand, Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the risk of colorectal cancer: the multiethnic cohort study, Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prev., 2010, 19, 130–134.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. M. Jenab, H. B. Bueno-de-Mesquita, P. Ferrari, F. J. van Duijnhoven, T. Norat, T. Pischon, E. H. Jansen, N. Slimani, G. Byrnes, S. Rinaldi, A. Tjonneland, A. Olsen, K. Overvad, M. C. Boutron-Ruault, F. Clavel-Chapelon, S. Morois, R. Kaaks, J. Linseisen, H. Boeing, M. M. Bergmann, A. Trichopoulou, G. Misirli, D. Trichopoulos, F. Berrino, P. Vineis, S. Panico, D. Palli, R. Tumino, M. M. Ros, C. H. van Gils, P. H. Peeters, M. Brustad, E. Lund, M. J. Tormo, E. Ardanaz, L. Rodriguez, M. J. Sanchez, M. Dorronsoro, C. A. Gonzalez, G. Hallmans, R. Palmqvist, A. Roddam, T. J. Key, K. T. Khaw, P. Autier, P. Hainaut and E. Riboli, Association between pre-diagnostic circulating vitamin D concentration and risk of colorectal cancer in European populations:a nested case-control study, Br. Med. J., 2010, 340, b5500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  202. K. Ng, J. A. Meyerhardt, K. Wu, D. Feskanich, B. W. Hollis, E. L. Giovannucci and C. S. Fuchs, Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and survival in patients with colorectal cancer, J. Clin. Oncol., 2008, 26, 2984–2991.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. D. M. Freedman, A. C. Looker, S. C. Chang and B. I. Graubard, Prospective study of serum vitamin D and cancer mortality in the United States, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 2007, 99, 1594–1602.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. E. Mokady, B. Schwartz, S. Shany and S. A. Lamprecht, A protective role of dietary vitamin D3 in rat colon carcinogenesis, Nutr. Cancer, 2000, 38, 65–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. W. B. Grant, An estimate of premature cancer mortality in the U.S. due to inadequate doses of solar ultraviolet-B radiation, Cancer, 2002, 94, 1867–1875.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. S. B. Mohr, C. F. Garland, E. D. Gorham, W. B. Grant and F. C. Garland, Relationship between low ultraviolet B irradiance and higher breast cancer risk in 107 countries, Breast J., 2008, 14, 255–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. C. F. Garland, E. D. Gorham, S. B. Mohr, W. B. Grant, E. L. Giovannucci, M. Lipkin, H. Newmark, M. F. Holick and F. C. Garland, Vitamin D and prevention of breast cancer: pooled analysis, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 2007, 103, 708–711.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. M. Almquist, A. G. Bondeson, L. Bondeson, J. Malm and J. Manjer, Serum levels of vitamin D, PTH and calcium and breast cancer risk - a prospective nested case-control study, Int. J. Cancer, 2010, 127, 2159–2168.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. L. Yin, N. Grandi, E. Raum, U. Haug, V. Arndt and H. Brenner, Meta-analysis: Serum vitamin D and breast cancer risk, Eur. J. Cancer, 2010, 46, 2196–2205.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. R. T. Chlebowski, K. C. Johnson, C. Kooperberg, M. Pettinger, J. Wactawski-Wende, T. Rohan, J. Rossouw, D. Lane, M. J. O’Sullivan, S. Yasmeen, R. A. Hiatt, J. M. Shikany, M. Vitolins, J. Khandekar and F. A. Hubbell, Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of breast cancer, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 2008, 100, 1581–1591.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  211. D. M. Freedman, M. Dosemeci and K. McGlynn, Sunlight and mortality from breast, ovarian, colon, prostate, and non-melanoma skin cancer: a composite death certificate based case-control study, Occup. Environ. Med., 2002, 59, 257–262.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  212. D. Bodiwala, C. J. Luscombe, M. E. French, S. Liu, M. F. Saxby, P. W. Jones, A. A. Fryer and R. C. Strange, Associations between prostate cancer susceptibility and parameters of exposure to ultraviolet radiation, Cancer Lett., 2003, 200, 141–148.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. E. M. John, D. M. Dreon, J. Koo and G. G. Schwartz, Residential sunlight exposure is associated with a decreased risk of prostate cancer, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 2004, 89-90, 549–552.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. W. B. Grant and C. F. Garland, The association of solar ultraviolet B (UVB) with reducing risk of cancer: multifactorial ecologic analysis of geographic variation in age-adjusted cancer mortality rates, Anticancer. Res., 2006, 26, 2687–2699.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. D. Feldman, R. J. Skowronski and D. M. Peehl, Vitamin D and prostate cancer, Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 1995, 375, 53–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  216. E. Giovannucci, Dietary influences of 1, 25(OH)2 vitamin D in relation to prostate cancer: a hypothesis, Cancer, Causes Control, 1998, 9, 567–582.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. D. M. Peehl, Vitamin D and prostate cancer risk, Eur. Urol., 1999, 35, 392–394.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. B. R. Konety, C. S. Johnson, D. L. Trump and R. H. Getzenberg, Vitamin D in the prevention and treatment of prostate cancer, Semin. Urol. Oncol., 1999, 17, 77–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. L. Yin, E. Raum, U. Haug, V. Arndt and H. Brenner, Meta-analysis of longitudinal studies: Serum vitamin D and prostate cancer risk, Cancer Epidemiol., 2009, 33, 435–445.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. R. C. Travis, F. L. Crowe, N. E. Allen, P. N. Appleby, A. W. Roddam, A. Tjonneland, A. Olsen, J. Linseisen, R. Kaaks, H. Boeing, J. Kroger, A. Trichopoulou, V. Dilis, D. Trichopoulos, P. Vineis, D. Palli, R. Tumino, S. Sieri, H. B. Bueno-de-Mesquita, F. J. van Duijnhoven, M. D. Chirlaque, A. Barricarte, N. Larranaga, C. A. Gonzalez, M. V. Arguelles, M. J. Sanchez, P. Stattin, G. Hallmans, K. T. Khaw, S. Bingham, S. Rinaldi, N. Slimani, M. Jenab, E. Riboli and T. J. Key, Serum vitamin D and risk of prostate cancer in a case-control analysis nested within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC), Am. J. Epidemiol., 2009, 169, 1223–1232.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  221. J. Ahn, U. Peters, D. Albanes, M. P. Purdue, C. C. Abnet, N. Chatterjee, R. L. Horst, B. W. Hollis, W. Y. Huang, J. M. Shikany and R. B. Hayes, Serum vitamin D concentration and prostate cancer risk: a nested case-control study, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 2008, 100, 796–804.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. M. Yin, S. Wei and Q. Wei, Vitamin D Receptor Genetic Polymorphisms and Prostate Cancer Risk: A Meta-analysis of 36 Published Studies, Int. J. Clin. Exp. Med., 2009, 2, 159–175.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  223. A. R. Kristal, J. H. Cohen, P. Qu and J. L. Stanford, Associations of energy, fat, calcium, and vitamin D with prostate cancer risk, Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., 2002, 11, 719–725.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. D. D. Bikle, Vitamin D and skin cancer, J. Nutr., 2004, 134, 3472S–3478S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. T. Xiao, J. Tang, A. Wu, E. Shpall, I. Khaimsky, P. So and E. Epstein, Hedgehog signaling of BCC is inhibited by Vitamin D: Implication for a chemopreventive agent against BCC carcinogenesis, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2009, 129, s32 (abstr.).

    Google Scholar 

  226. T. I. Ellison, M. K. Smith, A. C. Gilliam and P. N. MacDonald, Inactivation of the vitamin D receptor enhances susceptibility of murine skin to UV-induced tumorigenesis, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2008, 128, 2508–2517.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  227. M. M. Asgari, J. Tang, M. E. Warton, M. M. Chren, C. P. Quesenberry, Jr., D. Bikle, R. L. Horst, N. Orentreich, J. H. Vogelman and G. D. Friedman, Association of Prediagnostic Serum Vitamin D Levels with the Development of Basal Cell Carcinoma, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2010, 130, 1438–1443.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. E. D. Acheson and C. A. Bachrach, The distribution of multiple sclerosis in U. S. veterans by birthplace, Am. J. Hyg., 1960, 72, 88–99.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. J. G. McLeod, S. R. Hammond and J. F. Hallpike, Epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in Australia. With NSW and SA survey results, Med. J. Aust., 1994, 160, 117–122.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  230. A. J. McMichael and A. J. Hall, Does immunosuppressive ultraviolet radiation explain the latitude gradient for multiple sclerosis?, Epidemiology, 1997, 8, 642–645.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. B. R. Becklund, K. S. Severson, S. V. Vang and H. F. Deluca, UV radiation suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis independent of vitamin D production, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 2010, 107, 6418–6423.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  232. A. Ascherio and K. L. Munger, Environmental risk factors for multiple sclerosis. Part II: Noninfectious factors, Ann. Neurol., 2007, 61, 504–513.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. B. Taylor, R. Lucas, I. Van, Der Mei, M. Pender, K. Dear, C. Chapman, A. Coulthard, T. Dwyer, T. Kilpatrick, A. McMichael, P. Valery, D. Williams and A.-L. Ponsonby, Latitudinal variation in incidence and type of first central nervous system demyelinating events, Mult. Scler., 2010, 16, 398–405.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. J. S. Sloka, W. E. Pryse-Phillips and M. Stefanelli, The relation of ultraviolet radiation and multiple sclerosis in Newfoundland, Can. J. Neurol. Sci., 2008, 35, 69–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. B. V. Taylor, J. F. Pearson, G. Clarke, D. F. Mason, D. A. Abernethy, E. Willoughby and C. Sabel, MS prevalence in New Zealand, an ethnically and latitudinally diverse country, Mult. Scler., 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  236. J. Staples, L. Lim and A. L. Ponsonby, Timing of birth influences multiple sclerosis risk in the southern hemisphere, Br. Med. J., 2010, 340, c1640.

    Google Scholar 

  237. C. J. Willer, D. A. Dyment, A. D. Sadovnick, P. M. Rothwell, T. J. Murray and G. C. Ebers, Timing of birth and risk of multiple sclerosis: population based study, Br. Med. J., 2005, 330, 120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  238. I. A. Van, Der Mei, A. L. Ponsonby, T. Dwyer, L. Blizzard, R. Simmons, B. V. Taylor, H. Butzkueven and T. Kilpatrick, Past exposure to sun, skin phenotype, and risk of multiple sclerosis: case-control study, Br. Med. J., 2003, 327, 316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  239. K. L. Munger, L. I. Levin, B. W. Hollis, N. S. Howard and A. Ascherio, Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of multiple sclerosis, JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 2006, 296, 2832–2838.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. K. L. Munger, S. M. Zhang, E. O’Reilly, M. A. Hernan, M. J. Olek, W. C. Willett and A. Ascherio, Vitamin D intake and incidence of multiple sclerosis, Neurology, 2004, 62, 60–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. H. Tremlett, I. A. Van, Der Mei, F. Pittas, L. Blizzard, G. Paley, D. Mesaros, R. Woodbaker, M. Nunez, T. Dwyer, B. V. Taylor and A. L. Ponsonby, Monthly ambient sunlight, infections and relapse rates in multiple sclerosis, Neuroepidemiology, 2008, 31, 271–279.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. S. V. Ramagopalan, N. J. Maugeri, L. Handunnetthi, M. R. Lincoln, S. M. Orton, D. A. Dyment, G. C. Deluca, B. M. Herrera, M. J. Chao, A. D. Sadovnick, G. C. Ebers and J. C. Knight, Expression of the multiple sclerosis-associated MHC class II Allele HLA-DRB1*1501 is regulated by vitamin D, PLoS Genet., 2009, 5, e1000369.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. ANZgene, Genome-wide association study identifies new multiple sclerosis susceptibility loci on chromosomes 12 and 20, Nat. Genet., 2009, 41, 824–828.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. T. Fukazawa, I. Yabe, S. Kikuchi, H. Sasaki, T. Hamada, K. Miyasaka and K. Tashiro, Association of vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism with multiple sclerosis in Japanese, J. Neurol. Sci., 1999, 166, 47–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. S. M. Orton, A. P. Morris, B. M. Herrera, S. V. Ramagopalan, M. R. Lincoln, M. J. Chao, R. Vieth, A. D. Sadovnick and G. C. Ebers, Evidence for genetic regulation of vitamin D status in twins with multiple sclerosis, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2008, 88, 441–447.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  246. J. Smolders, M. Thewissen, E. Peelen, P. Menheere, J. W. Cohen Tervaert, J. Damoiseaux and R. Hupperts, Vitamin D status is positively correlated with regulatory T cell function in patients with multiple sclerosis, PLoS One, 2009, 4, e6635.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. A. L. Ponsonby, A. Pezic, J. Ellis, R. Morley, F. Cameron, J. Carlin and T. Dwyer, Variation in associations between allelic variants of the vitamin D receptor gene and onset of type 1 diabetes mellitus by ambient winter ultraviolet radiation levels: a meta-regression analysis, Am. J. Epidemiol., 2008, 168, 358–365.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. P. L. Campbell-Stokes and B. J. Taylor, Prospective incidence study of diabetes mellitus in New Zealand children aged 0 to 14 years, Diabetologia, 2005, 48, 643–648.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. P. Onkamo, S. Vaananen, M. Karvonen and J. Tuomilehto, Worldwide increase in incidence of Type I diabetes, Diabetologia, 1999, 42, 1395–1403.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. M. A. Atkinson and G. S. Eisenbarth, Type 1 diabetes: new perspectives on disease pathogenesis and treatment, Lancet, 2001, 358, 221–229.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. O. Cinek, Z. Sumnik and J. Vavrinec, Continuing increase in incidence of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes in the Czech Republic 1990-2001, Eur. J Pediat., 2003, 162, 428–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  252. M. L. Charkaluk, P. Czernichow and C. Levy-Marchal, Incidence data of childhood-onset type I diabetes in France during 1988-1997: the case for a shift toward younger age at onset, Pediat. Res., 2002, 52, 859–862.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  253. Australasian Paediatric Endocrine Group, Clinical practice guidelines: Type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents, National Health and Medical Research Council, Publisher site http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses//cp102syn.htm.

  254. X. H. Li, T. L. Li, Z. Yang, Z. Y. Liu, Y. D. Wei, S. X. Jin, C. Hong, R. L. Qin, Y. Q. Li, J. S. Dorman, R. E. Laporte and K. A. Wang, A nine-year prospective study on the incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes mellitus in China, Biomed. Environ. Sci., 2000, 13, 263–270.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. J. A. Staples, A. L. Ponsonby, L. L. Lim and A. J. McMichael, Ecologic analysis of some immune-related disorders, including type 1 diabetes, in Australia: latitude, regional ultraviolet radiation, and disease prevalence, Environ. Health Perspect., 2002, 111, 518–523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  256. S. B. Mohr, C. F. Garland, E. D. Gorham and F. C. Garland, The association between ultraviolet B irradiance, vitamin D status and incidence rates of type 1 diabetes in 51 regions worldwide, Diabetologia, 2008, 51, 1391–1398.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. J. C. Elliott, R. M. Lucas, M. S. Clements and H. J. Bambrick, Population density determines the direction of the association between ambient ultraviolet radiation and type 1 diabetes incidence, Pediatr. Diabetes, 2010, 11, 394–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. E. F. Roche, H. Lewy, H. M. Hoey and Z. Laron, Differences between males and females in the seasonality of birth and month of clinical onset of disease in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus in Ireland, J. Pediat. Endocrinol. Metab., 2003, 16, 779–782.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  259. A. M. Vaiserman, B. Carstensen, V. P. Voitenko, M. D. Tronko, V. I. Kravchenko, M. D. Khalangot and L. V. Mechova, Seasonality of birth in children and young adults (0-29 years) with type 1 diabetes in Ukraine, Diabetologia, 2006, 50, 32–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  260. J. A. Willis, R. S. Scott, B. A. Darlow, H. Lewy, I. Ashkenazi and Z. Laron, Seasonality of birth and onset of clinical disease in children and adolescents (0-19 years) with type 1 diabetes mellitus in Canterbury, New Zealand, J. Pediat. Endocrinol. Metab., 2002, 15, 645–647.

    Google Scholar 

  261. P. Durruty, F. Ruiz and M. Garcia de los Rios, Age at diagnosis and seasonal variation in the onset of insulin-dependent diabetes in Chile (Southern hemisphere), Diabetologia, 1979, 17, 357–360.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  262. P. M. Rothwell, S. A. Gutnikov, P. A. McKinney, E. Schober, C. Ionescu-Tirgoviste and A. Neu, Seasonality of birth in children with diabetes in Europe: multicentre cohort study. European Diabetes Study Group, Br. Med. J., 1999, 319, 887–888.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  263. J. Santos, E. Carrasco, A. Moore, F. Perez-Bravo and C. Albala, Incidence rate and spatio-temporal clustering of type 1 diabetes in Santiago, Chile, from 1997 to 1998, Rev. Saude Publica, 2001, 35, 96–100.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. H. K. Brekke and J. Ludvigsson, Vitamin D supplementation and diabetes-related autoimmunity in the ABIS study, Pediatr. Diabetes, 2007, 8, 11–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  265. C. M. Fronczak, A. E. Baron, H. P. Chase, C. Ross, H. L. Brady, M. Hoffman, G. S. Eisenbarth, M. Rewers and J. M. Norris, In utero dietary exposures and risk of islet autoimmunity in children, Diabetes Care, 2003, 26, 3237–3242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. E. Hypponen, E. Laara, A. Reunanen, M. R. Jarvelin and S. M. Virtanen, Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth-cohort study, Lancet, 2001, 358, 1500–1503.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. L. C. Stene, J. Ulriksen, P. Magnus and G. Joner, Use of cod liver oil during pregnancy associated with lower risk of Type I diabetes in the offspring, Diabetologia, 2000, 43, 1093–1098.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  268. The EURODIAB Substudy 2 Study Group, Vitamin D supplement in early childhood and risk for Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus, Diabetologia, 1999, 42, 51–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  269. E. D. Gorham, E. Barrett-Connor, R. M. Highfill-McRoy, S. B. Mohr, C. F. Garland, F. C. Garland and C. Ricordi, Incidence of insulin-requiring diabetes in the US military, Diabetologia, 2009, 52, 2087–2091.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  270. J. Ostman, G. Lonnberg, H. J. Arnqvist, G. Blohme, J. Bolinder, A. Ekbom Schnell, J. W. Eriksson, S. Gudbjornsdottir, G. Sundkvist and L. Nystrom, Gender differences and temporal variation in the incidence of type 1 diabetes: results of 8012 cases in the nationwide Diabetes Incidence Study in Sweden 1983-2002, J. Intern. Med., 2008, 263, 386–394.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  271. U. Samuelsson, J. Carstensen, O. Lofman and S. Nordfeldt, Seasonal variation in the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes in south-east Sweden, Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract., 2007, 76, 75–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  272. P. Z. Benitez-Aguirre, N. J. Wood, C. Biesheuvel, C. Moreira and C. F. Munns, The natural history of vitamin D deficiency in African refugees living in Sydney, Med. J. Aust., 2009, 190, 426–428.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  273. J. J. Cannell, R. Vieth, J. C. Umhau, M. F. Holick, W. B. Grant, S. Madronich, C. F. Garland and E. Giovannucci, Epidemic influenza and vitamin D, Epidemiol. Infect., 2006, 134, 1129–1140.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  274. J. J. Cannell, M. Zasloff, C. F. Garland, R. Scragg and E. Giovannucci, On the epidemiology of influenza, Virol. J., 2008, 5, 29.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  275. J. F. Aloia and M. Li-Ng, Re: epidemic influenza and vitamin D, Epidemiol. Infect., 2007, 135, 1095–1096.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  276. M. Urashima, T. Segawa, M. Okazaki, M. Kurihara, Y. Wada and H. Ida, Randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation to prevent seasonal influenza A in schoolchildren, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2010, 91, 1255–1260.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  277. V. Wayse, A. Yousafzai, K. Mogale and S. Filteau, Association of subclinical vitamin D deficiency with severe acute lower respiratory infection in Indian children under 5 y, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 2004, 58, 563–567.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. I. Laaksi, J. P. Ruohola, P. Tuohimaa, A. Auvinen, R. Haataja, H. Pihlajamaki and T. Ylikomi, An association of serum vitamin D concentrations < 40 nmol/L with acute respiratory tract infection in young Finnish men, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2007, 86, 714–717.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. G. Karatekin, A. Kaya, O. Salihoglu, H. Balci and A. Nuhoglu, Association of subclinical vitamin D deficiency in newborns with acute lower respiratory infection and their mothers, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 2009, 63, 473–477.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  280. A. A. Ginde, J. M. Mansbach and C. A. Camargo, Jr., Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and upper respiratory tract infection in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Arch. Intern. Med., 2009, 169, 384–390.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  281. A. A. Ginde, J. M. Mansbach and C. A. Camargo, Jr., Vitamin D, respiratory infections, and asthma, Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep., 2009, 9, 81–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  282. D. A. Hughes and R. Norton, Vitamin D and respiratory health, Clin. Exp. Immunol., 2009, 158, 20–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  283. A. R. Martineau, F. U. Honecker, R. J. Wilkinson and C. J. Griffiths, Vitamin D in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 2007, 103, 793–798.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  284. P. D. Davies, A possible link between vitamin D deficiency and impaired host defence to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Tubercle, 1985, 66, 301–306.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. C. Wejse, V. F. Gomes, P. Rabna, P. Gustafson, P. Aaby, I. M. Lisse, P. L. Andersen, H. Glerup and M. Sodemann, Vitamin D as supplementary treatment for tuberculosis: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2009, 179, 843–850.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  286. P. D. Yesudian, J. L. Berry, S. Wiles, S. Hoyle, D. B. Young, A. K. Haylett, L. E. Rhodes and P. Davies, The effect of ultraviolet B-induced vitamin D levels on host resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a pilot study in immigrant Asian adults living in the United Kingdom, Photodermatol., Photoimmunol. Photomed., 2008, 24, 97–98.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  287. K. E. Nnoaham and A. Clarke, Low serum vitamin D levels and tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Int. J. Epidemiol., 2007, 37, 113–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  288. A. V. Yamshchikov, N. S. Desai, H. M. Blumberg, T. R. Ziegler and V. Tangpricha, Vitamin D for treatment and prevention of infectious diseases: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials, Endocrine Practice, 2009, 15, 438–449.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  289. S. G. Rostand, Ultraviolet light may contribute to geographic and racial blood pressure differences, Hypertension, 1997, 30, 150–156.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. R. Krause, M. Buhring, W. Hopfenmuller, M. F. Holick and A. M. Sharma, Ultraviolet B and blood pressure, Lancet, 1998, 352, 709–710.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  291. P. Autier and S. Gandini, Vitamin D supplementation and total mortality: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, Arch. Intern. Med., 2007, 167, 1730–1737.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  292. H. Dobnig, S. Pilz, H. Scharnagl, W. Renner, U. Seelhorst, B. Wellnitz, J. Kinkeldei, B. O. Boehm, G. Weihrauch and W. Maerz, Independent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin d levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, Arch. Intern. Med., 2008, 168, 1340–1349.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  293. A. A. Ginde, R. Scragg, R. S. Schwartz and C. A. Camargo, Jr., Prospective study of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d level, cardiovascular disease mortality, and all-cause mortality in older U.S. Adults, J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 2009, 57, 1595–1603.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  294. R. D. Semba, D. K. Houston, S. Bandinelli, K. Sun, A. Cherubini, A. R. Cappola, J. M. Guralnik and L. Ferrucci, Relationship of 25-hydroxyvitamin D with all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in older community-dwelling adults, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 2010, 64, 203–209.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. E. Giovannucci, Y. Liu, B. W. Hollis and E. B. Rimm, 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of myocardial infarction in men: a prospective study, Arch. Intern. Med., 2008, 168, 1174–1180.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  296. D. H. Sliney and S. Wengraitis, Is a differentiated advice by season and region necessary?, Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol., 2006, 92, 150–160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  297. P. H. Youl, M. Janda and M. Kimlin, Vitamin D and sun protection: the impact of mixed public health messages in Australia, Int. J. Cancer, 2009, 124, 1963–1970.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  298. A. C. Geller, D. Hufford, D. R. Miller, T. Sun, S. W. Wyatt, B. Reilley, B. Bewerse, J. Lisco, D. Brooks, J. Grupenhoff, P. Weary, R. A. Lew and H. K. Koh, Evaluation of the Ultraviolet Index: media reactions and public response, J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 1997, 37, 935–941.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  299. O. B. Carter and R. J. Donovan, Public (Mis)understanding of the UV Index, J. Health Commun., 2007, 12, 41–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  300. A. F. Moise and R. Aynsley, Ambient ultraviolet radiation levels in public shade settings, Int. J. Biometeorol., 1999, 43, 128–138.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  301. P. Gies, R. Elix, D. Lawry, J. Gardner, T. Hancock, S. Cockerell, C. Roy, J. Javorniczky and S. Henderson, Assessment of the UVR protection provided by different tree species, Photochem. Photobiol., 2007, 83, 1465–1470.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  302. S. J. Dobbinson, V. White, M. A. Wakefield, K. M. Jamsen, V. White, P. M. Livingston, D. R. English and J. A. Simpson, Adolescents’ use of purpose built shade in secondary schools: cluster randomised controlled trial, B r. Med. J., 2009, 338, b95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  303. P. Gies, Photoprotection by clothing, Photodermatol., Photoimmunol. Photomed., 2007, 23, 264–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  304. M. Moehrle, Outdoor sports and skin cancer, Clin. Dermatol., 2008, 26, 12–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  305. S. L. Harrison, P. G. Buettner and R. Maclennan, The North Queensland “Sun-Safe Clothing” study: design and baseline results of a randomized trial to determine the effectiveness of sun-protective clothing in preventing melanocytic nevi, Am. J. Epidemiol., 2005, 161, 536–545.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  306. S. Lautenschlager, H. C. Wulf and M. R. Pittelkow, Photoprotection, Lancet, 2007, 370, 528–537.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  307. IARC, Sunscreens, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization Report No. 92-832-3005-1, Lyon, 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  308. S. C. Thompson, D. Jolley and R. Marks, Reduction of solar keratoses by regular sunscreen use, N. Engl. J. Med., 1993, 329, 1147–1151.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  309. A. Green, G. Williams, R. Neale, V. Hart, D. Leslie, P. Parsons, G. C. Marks, P. Gaffney, D. Battistutta, C. Frost, C. Lang and A. Russell, Daily sunscreen application and betacarotene supplementation in prevention of basal-cell and squamous-cell carcinomas of the skin: a randomised controlled trial, Lancet, 1999, 354, 723–729.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  310. J. C. Van, Der Pols, G. M. Williams, N. Pandeya, V. Logan and A. C. Green, Prolonged prevention of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin by regular sunscreen use, Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prev., 2006, 15, 2546–2548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  311. R. P. Gallagher, J. K. Rivers, T. K. Lee, C. D. Bajdik, D. I. McLean and A. J. Coldman, Broad-spectrum sunscreen use and the development of new nevi in white children: A randomized controlled trial, JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 2000, 283, 2955–2960.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  312. M. Huncharek and B. Kupelnick, Use of topical sunscreens and the risk of malignant melanoma: a meta-analysis of 9067 patients from 11 case-control studies, Am. J. Public Health, 2002, 92, 1173–1177.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  313. L. K. Dennis, L. E. Beane, Freeman and M. J. VanBeek, Sunscreen use and the risk for melanoma: a quantitative review, Ann. Intern. Med., 2003, 139, 966–978.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  314. A. C. Green and G. M. Williams, Point: sunscreen use is a safe and effective approach to skin cancer prevention, Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prev., 2007, 16, 1921–1922.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  315. B. L. Diffey, Sunscreens as a preventative measure in melanoma: an evidence-based approach or the precautionary principle?, Br. J. Der-matol., 2009, 161, 25–27.

    Google Scholar 

  316. A. V. Pinto, E. L. Deodato, J. S. Cardoso, E. F. Oliveira, S. L. Machado, H. K. Toma, A. C. Leitao and M. de Padula, Enzymatic recognition of DNA damage induced by UVB-photosensitized titanium dioxide and biological consequences in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: evidence for oxidatively DNA damage generation, Mutat. Res., Fundam. Mol. Mech. Mutagen., 2010, 688, 3–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  317. G. J. Nohynek, E. Antignac, T. Re and H. Toutain, Safety assessment of personal care products/cosmetics and their ingredients, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 2010, 243, 239–259.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  318. M. Norval and H. C. Wulf, Does chronic sunscreen use reduce vitamin D production to insufficient levels?, Br. J. Dermatol., 2009, 161, 732–736.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  319. R. Bimczok, H. Gers-Barlag, C. Mundt, E. Klette, S. Bielfeldt, T. Rudolph, F. Pflucker, U. Heinrich, H. Tronnier, W. Johncock, B. Klebon, H. Westenfelder, H. Flosser-Muller, K. Jenni, D. Kockott, J. Lademann, B. Herzog and M. Rohr, Influence of applied quantity of sunscreen products on the sun protection factor-a multicenter study organized by the DGK. Task Force Sun Protection, Skin Pharmacol. Physiol., 2007, 20, 57–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  320. A. Faurschou and H. C. Wulf, The relation between sun protection factor and amount of suncreen applied in vivo, Br. J. Dermatol., 2007, 156, 716–719.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  321. B. Diffey, Has the sun protection factor had its day?, Br. Med. J., 2000, 320, 176–177.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  322. I. Nicol, C. Gaudy, J. Gouvernet, M. A. Richard and J. J. Grob, Skin protection by sunscreens is improved by explicit labeling and providing free sunscreen, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2007, 127, 41–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  323. A. Reich, M. Harupa, M. Bury, J. Chrzaszcz and A. Starczewska, Application of sunscreen preparations: a need to change the regulations, Photodermatol., Photoimmunol. Photomed., 2009, 25, 242–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  324. S. Q. Wang and S. W. Dusza, Assessment of sunscreen knowledge: a pilot survey, B r. J. Dermatol., 2009, 161, 28–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  325. P. Autier, M. Boniol and J. F. Dore, Sunscreen use and increased duration of intentional sun exposure: still a burning issue, Int. J. Cancer, 2007, 121, 1–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  326. P. Autier, Sunscreen abuse for intentional sun exposure, Br. J. Derma-tol., 2009, 161, 40–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  327. SunSmart, SunSmart Home Page, Cancer Research UK, http://www.sunsmart.org.uk/index.htm, accessed September 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  328. B. Diffey, A behavioral model for estimating population exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation, Photochem. Photobiol., 2008, 84, 371–375.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  329. Cancer Council Australia, Risks and benefits of sun exposure position statement, Cancer Council Australia, http://cancer.org.au//File/PolicyPublications/PSRisksBenefitsSunExposure03May07.pdf, accessed September 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  330. M. Scully, M. Wakefield and H. Dixon, Trends in news coverage about skin cancer prevention, 1993-2006: increasingly mixed messages for the public, Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health, 2008, 32, 461–466.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  331. M. S. Matsui, A. Hsia, J. D. Miller, K. Hanneman, H. Scull, K. D. Cooper and E. Baron, Non-sunscreen photoprotection: antioxidants add value to a sunscreen, J. Invest. Dermatol. Symp. Proc., 2009, 14, 56–59.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  332. C. R. Lucas, M. S. Ke, M. S. Matsui, D. Maes, K. D. Cooper, S. R. Stevens and E. D. Baron, Immune protective effect of a moisturizer with DNA repair ingredients, J. Cosmet. Dermatol., 2008, 7, 132–135.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  333. M. S. Ke, M. M. Camouse, F. R. Swain, S. Oshtory, M. Matsui, T. Mammone, D. Maes, K. D. Cooper, S. R. Stevens and E. D. Baron, UV protective effects of DNA repair enzymes and RNA lotion, Photochem. Photobiol., 2008, 84, 180–184.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  334. R. S. Barnetson, T. K. Ooi, L. Zhuang, G. M. Halliday, C. M. Reid, P. C. Walker, S. M. Humphrey and M. J. Kleinig, [Nle4-D-Phe7]-alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone significantly increased pigmentation and decreased UV damage in fair-skinned Caucasian volunteers, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2006, 126, 1869–1878.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  335. D. L. Damian, C. R. Patterson, M. Stapelberg, J. Park, R. S. Barnetson and G. M. Halliday, UV radiation-induced immunosuppression is greater in men and prevented by topical nicotinamide, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2008, 128, 447–454.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  336. E. Yiasemides, G. Sivapirabu, G. M. Halliday, J. Park and D. L. Damian, Oral nicotinamide protects against ultraviolet radiation-induced immunosuppression in humans, Carcinogenesis, 2008, 30, 101–105.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  337. G. Sivapirabu, E. Yiasemides, G. M. Halliday, J. Park and D. L. Damian, Topical nicotinamide modulates cellular energy metabolism and provides broad-spectrum protection against ultraviolet radiation-induced immunosuppression in humans, Br. J. Dermatol., 2009, 161, 1357–1364.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  338. J. C. Murray, J. A. Burch, R. D. Streilein, M. A. Iannacchione, R. P. Hall and S. R. Pinnell, A topical antioxidant solution containing vitamins C and E stabilized by ferulic acid provides protection for human skin against damage caused by ultraviolet irradiation, J. A m. Acad. Dermatol., 2008, 59, 418–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  339. J. B. Christian, K. L. Lapane, A. L. Hume, C. B. Eaton and M. A. Weinstock, Association of ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers with keratinocyte cancer prevention in the randomized VATTC trial, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 2008, 100, 1223–1232.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  340. J. Peguet-Navarro, C. Dezutter-Dambuyant, T. Buetler, J. Leclaire, H. Smola, S. Blum, P. Bastien, L. Breton and A. Gueniche, Supplementation with oral probiotic bacteria protects human cutaneous immune homeostasis after UV exposure-double blind, randomized, placebo controlled clinical trial, Eur. J. Dermatol., 2008, 18, 504–511.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  341. N. Yusuf, C. Irby, S. K. Katiyar and C. A. Elmets, Photoprotective effects of green tea polyphenols, Photodermatol., Photoimmunol. Photomed., 2007, 23, 48–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  342. C. D. Mnich, K. S. Hoek, L. V. Virkki, A. Farkas, C. Dudli, E. Laine, M. Urosevic and R. Dummer, Green tea extract reduces induction of p53 and apoptosis in UVB-irradiated human skin independent of transcriptional controls, Exp. Dermatol., 2009, 18, 69–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  343. M. M. Camouse, D. S. Domingo, F. R. Swain, E. P. Conrad, M. S. Matsui, D. Maes, L. Declercq, K. D. Cooper, S. R. Stevens and E. D. Baron, Topical application of green and white tea extracts provides protection from solar-simulated ultraviolet light in human skin, Exp. Dermatol., 2009, 18, 522–526.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  344. J. W. Kyle, J. K. Hammitt, H. W. Lim, A. C. Geller, L. H. HallJordan, E. W. Maibach, E. C. De, Fabo and M. C. Wagner, Economic evaluation of the US Environmental Protection Agency’s SunWise program: sun protection education for young children, Pediatrics, 2008, 121, e1074-1084.

  345. S. T. Shih, R. Carter, C. Sinclair, C. Mihalopoulos and T. Vos, Economic evaluation of skin cancer prevention in Australia, Prev. Med., 2009, 49, 449–453.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  346. L. G. Gordon, P. A. Scuffham, J. C. Van, Der Pols, P. McBride, G. M. Williams and A. C. Green, Regular sunscreen use is a cost-effective approach to skin cancer prevention in subtropical settings, J. Invest. Dermatol., 2009, 129, 2766–2771.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  347. A. M. Dongre, G. G. Pai and U. S. Khopkar, Ultraviolet protective properties of branded and unbranded sunglasses available in the Indian market in UV phototherapy chambers, Indian J. Dermatol. Venereol. Leprol., 2007, 73, 26–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  348. B. Chou and A. Cullen, Optical radiation protection by non-prescription sunglasses, Can. J. Optom., 1986, 48, 17–22.

    Google Scholar 

  349. H. L. Chandler, K. S. Reuter, L. T. Sinnott and J. J. Nichols, Prevention of UV-induced damage to the anterior segment using class I UV-absorbing hydrogel contact lenses, Invest. Ophthalmol. Visual Sci., 2010, 51, 172–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  350. J. E. Walsh, L. V. Koehler, D. P. Fleming and J. P. Bergmanson, Novel method for determining hydrogel and silicone hydrogel contact lens transmission curves and their spatially specific ultraviolet radiation protection factors, Eye Contact Lens Sci. Clin. Pract., 2007, 33, 58–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  351. W. T. Tsai, Environmental risk assessment of hydrofluoroethers (HFEs), J. Hazard. Mater., 2005, 119, 69–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  352. W. T. Tsai, Environmental risk assessment of hydrofluoropolyethers (HFPEs), J. Hazard. Mater., 2007, 139, 185–192.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  353. W. T. Tsai, Environmental hazards and health risk of common liquid perfluoro-n-alkanes, potent greenhouse gases, Environ. Int., 2009, 35, 418–424.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  354. W. T. Tsai, Environmental and health risks of sulfuryl fluoride, a fumigant replacement for methyl bromide, J. Environ. Sci. Hlth. C Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev., 2010, 28, 125–145.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  355. M. Ema, M. Naya, K. Yoshida and R. Nagaosa, Reproductive and developmental toxicity of hydrofluorocarbons used as refrigerants, Reprod. Toxicol., 2010, 29, 125–131.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  356. M. Ema, M. Naya, K. Yoshida and R. Nagaosa, Reproductive and developmental toxicity of degradation products of refrigerants in experimental animals, Reprod. Toxicol., 2010, 29, 1–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  357. A. J. McMichael, M. Neira, R. Bertollini, D. Campbell-Lendrum and S. Hales, Climate change: a time of need and opportunity for the health sector, Lancet, 2010, 374, 2123–2125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  358. A. Haines, A. J. McMichael and P. R. Epstein, Environment and health: 2. Global climate change and health, Can. Med. Assoc. J., 2000, 163, 729–734.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  359. E. Casimiro, J. Calheiros, F. D. Santos and S. Kovats, National assessment of human health effects of climate change in Portugal: approach and key findings, Environ. Health Perspect., 2006, 114, 1950–1956.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  360. J. A. Patz, S. H. Olson, C. K. Uejio and H. K. Gibbs, Disease emergence from global climate and land use change, Med. Clin. North Am., 2008, 92, 1473–1491.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  361. D. N. Fisman, Seasonality of infectious diseases, Annu. Rev. Public Health, 2007, 28, 127–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  362. J. C. Van, Der Leun and F. R. de Gruijl, Climate change and skin cancer, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2002, 1, 324–326.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  363. J. C. Van, Der Leun, R. D. Piacentini and F. R. de Gruijl, Climate change and human skin cancer, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2008, 7, 730–733.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  364. M. Ilyas, Climate augmentation of erythemal UV-B radiation dose damage in the tropics and global change, Curr. Sci., 2007, 93, 1604–1608.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  365. L. T. Lam, The association between climatic factors and childhood illnesses presented to hospital emergency among young children, Int. J. Environ. Health Res., 2007, 17, 1–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  366. A. N. White, V. Ng, C. V. Spain, C. C. Johnson, L. M. Kinlin and D. N. Fisman, Let the sun shine in: effects of ultraviolet radiation on invasive pneumococcal disease risk in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, BMC Infect. Dis., 2009, 9, 196.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  367. L. M. Kinlin, C. V. Spain, V. Ng, C. C. Johnson, A. N. White and D. N. Fisman, Environmental exposures and invasive meningococcal disease: an evaluation of effects on varying time scales, Am. J. Epidemiol., 2008, 169, 588–595.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  368. J. L. Hawk, Chronic actinic dermatitis, Photodermatol., Photoim-munol. Photomed., 2004, 20, 312–314.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  369. C. Kyu-Won, L. Chae-Young, L. Yeong-Kyu, K. Young-Hun and K. Ki-Ho, A Korean experience with chronic actinic dermatitis during an 18-year period: meteorological and photoimmunological aspects, Photodermatol., Photoimmunol. Photomed., 2009, 25, 286–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  370. C. M. Davies, D. J. Roser, A. J. Feitz and N. J. Ashbolt, Solar radiation disinfection of drinking water at temperate latitudes: inactivation rates for an optimised reactor configuration, Water Res., 2009, 43, 643–652.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  371. B. J. King, D. Hoefel, D. P. Daminato, S. Fanok and P. T. Monis, Solar UV reduces Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst infectivity in environmental waters, J. Appl. Microbiol., 2008, 104, 1311–1323.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  372. S. J. Connelly, E. A. Wolyniak, C. E. Williamson and K. L. Jellison, Artificial UV-B and solar radiation reduce in vitro infectivity of the human pathogen Cryptosporidium parvum, Environ. Sci. Technol., 2007, 41, 7101–7106.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  373. J. L. Sagripanti, A. Levy, J. Robertson, A. Merritt and T. J. Inglis, Inactivation of virulent Burkholderia pseudomallei by sunlight, Photochem. Photobiol., 2009, 85, 978–986.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  374. A. B. Boehm, K. M. Yamahara, D. C. Love, B. M. Peterson, K. McNeill and K. L. Nelson, Covariation and photoinactivation of traditional and novel indicator organisms and human viruses at a sewage-impacted marine beach, Environ. Sci. Technol., 2009, 43, 8046–8052.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  375. L. W. Sinton, C. H. Hall, P. A. Lynch and R. J. Davies-Colley, Sunlight inactivation of fecal indicator bacteria and bacteriophages from waste stabilization pond effluent in fresh and saline waters, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2002, 68, 1122–1131.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  376. H. Pakker, S. Martins, P. Boelen, A. Buma, O. Nikaido and A. Breeman, Effects of temperature on the photoreactivation of ultraviolet-B-induced DNA damage in Palmaria palmate (Rhodophyta), J. Phycol., 2001, 36, 334–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  377. T. P. Coohill and J. L. Sagripanti, Bacterial inactivation by solar ultraviolet radiation compared with sensitivity to 254 nm radiation, Photochem. Photobiol., 2009, 85, 1043–1052.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. Norval.

Additional information

Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: Appendix: Health risks associated with the use of substitutes for ozone-depleting substances.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Norval, M., Lucas, R.M., Cullen, A.P. et al. The human health effects of ozone depletion and interactions with climate change. Photochem Photobiol Sci 10, 199–225 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1039/c0pp90044c

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/c0pp90044c

Navigation