Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Causes of the difficulties in internationalization

  • Article
  • Published:
Journal of International Business Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We study the causes of the difficulties faced by firms when they internationalize in search of new markets. We build on the resource-based theory to argue that the difficulties in internationalization can be separated into three main sets based on their relationship to advantage: loss of advantage provided by resources transferred abroad; creation of a disadvantage by resources transferred abroad; and lack of complementary resources required to operate abroad. In each set, we further distinguish difficulties that are specific to a firm from those that are common to a set of firms. We argue that only a few of the resulting types of difficulties of internationalization are exclusive to the cross-border expansion, and propose solutions that address the root cause of each type.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Empirical studies have analyzed the consequences of these difficulties, finding that subsidiaries of foreign firms have lower performance (Zaheer, 1995), are more likely to exit markets (Zaheer and Mosakowski, 1997), face more lawsuits (Mezias, 2002a), and are less efficient (Miller and Parkhe, 2002) than domestic firms. However, foreign firms are not always at a disadvantage; some studies find that domestic and foreign firms have similar chances for survival (Mata and Portugal, 2002), and that foreign firms acquire better-performing companies than do their domestic counterparts (Goethals and Ooghe, 1997).

  2. Another form of international expansion is licensing (Buckley and Casson, 1976). Licensing is typically initiated by the licensee in the foreign market, who bears the costs of the various liabilities if the licensed technology or brand fails to deliver. The licensor is generally paid up-front and therefore avoids difficulties in internationalization. We thank an anonymous reviewer for this suggestion.

  3. Although the term ‘liability of foreignness’ was initially introduced as a synonym for the costs of doing business abroad or overall difficulties (Zaheer, 1995), in later studies it was narrowed to represent difficulties that arise from the lack of social relationships abroad (Zaheer, 2002). Here we adopt the narrower definition of the term.

References

  • Amit, R. and Schoemaker, P.J.H. (1993) ‘Strategic assets and organizational rent’, Strategic Management Journal 14 (1): 33–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anand, J. and Delios, A. (1997) ‘Location specificity and the transferability of downstream assets to foreign subsidiaries’, Journal of International Business Studies 28 (3): 579–603.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anand, J. and Delios, A. (2002) ‘Absolute and relative resources as determinants of international acquisitions’, Strategic Management Journal 23 (2): 119–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkema, H.G. and Vermeulen, F. (1998) ‘International expansion through start-up or acquisition: a learning perspective’, Academy of Management Journal 41 (1): 7–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkema, H.G., Bell, J. and Pennings, J.M. (1996) ‘Foreign entry, cultural barriers, and learning’, Strategic Management Journal 17 (2): 151–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barney, J. (1991) ‘Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage’, Journal of Management 17 (1): 99–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, C.A. and Ghoshal, S. (1986) ‘Tap your subsidiaries for global reach’, Harvard Business Review 64 (6): 87–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, C.A. and Ghoshal, S. (1989) Managing Across Borders: The Transnational Solution, Harvard Business School Press: Boston, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, C.A. and O’Connell, J. (1998) Jollibee Foods Corp. (A): International Expansion, Harvard Business School Case 9-399-007, Boston, Harvard Business School, pp: 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benito, G.R.G. and Welch, L.S. (1997) ‘De-internationalization’, Management International Review 37 (2): 7–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bilkey, W.J. and Nes, E. (1982) ‘Country-of-origin effects on product evaluations’, Journal of International Business Studies 13 (1): 89–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Birkinshaw, J., Hood, N. and Jonsson, S. (1998) ‘Building firm-specific advantages in multinational corporations: the role of subsidiary initiative’, Strategic Management Journal 19 (3): 221–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brush, T. and Artz, K. (1999) ‘Toward a contingent resource-based theory: the impact of information asymmetry on the value of capabilities in veterinary medicine’, Strategic Management Journal 20 (3): 223–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buckley, P. and Casson, M. (1976) The Future of the Multinational Corporation, Macmillan: London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burstein, M.L. (1984) ‘Diffusion of knowledge-based products: applications to developing economies’, Economic Inquiry 22 (4): 612–633.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Business Week (2004) ‘The next Wal-Mart?’ Business Week 3880: 60–62.

  • Calhoun, M.A. (2002) ‘Unpacking liability of foreignness: identifying culturally driven external and internal sources of liability for the foreign subsidiary’, Journal of International Management 8 (3): 301–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Capron, L., Dussauge, P. and Mitchell, W. (1998) ‘Resource redeployment following horizontal acquisitions in Europe and North America, 1988–1992’, Strategic Management Journal 19 (7): 631–661.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chandler, A.D. (1962) Strategy and Structure, MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chao, P. (2001) ‘The moderating effects of country of assembly, country of parts, and country of design on hybrid product evaluations’, Journal of Advertising 30 (4): 67–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collis, D.J. (1991) ‘A resource-based analysis of global competition: the case of the bearings industry’, Strategic Management Journal 12 (Special Issue): 49–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawar, N. and Frost, T. (1999) ‘Competing with giants’, Harvard Business Review 77 (2): 119–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Debord, M. (2003) ‘Just say “non!” to French wine’, Wine Spectator 28 (3): 152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dierickx, I. and Cool, K. (1989) ‘Asset stock accumulation and sustainability of competitive advantage’, Management Science 35 (12): 1504–1511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunning, J.H. (1977) ‘Trade, Location of Economic Activity and the MNE: A Search for an Eclectic Approach’, in B. Ohlin, P.O. Hesselborn and P.M. Wijkman (eds.) The International Allocation of Economic Activity, Macmillan: London, pp: 395–419.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Dunning, J.H. (1993) Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy, Addison-Wesley: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyerson, R. and Pilkington, A. (2000) ‘Innovation in complex systems: regulation and technology towards the electric vehicle’, International Journal of Innovation Management 4 (1): 33–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Economist (2003) ‘You’re not all right, Jacques’, The Economist 369 (8354): 30–31.

  • Economist (2004) ‘How big can it grow? – Wal-Mart’, The Economist 371 (8371): 67–70.

  • Eden, L. and Miller, S. (2001) ‘Opening the black box: multinationals and the cost of doing business abroad’, Academy of Management Proceedings, IM: C1–C6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson, K., Johanson, J., Majkgard, A. and Sharma, D.D. (1997) ‘Experimental knowledge and costs in the internationalization process’, Journal of International Business Studies 28 (2): 337–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick, M. (1983) ‘The definition and assessment of political risk in international business: a review of the literature’, Academy of Management Review 8 (2): 249–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fladmoe-Lindquist, K. and Tallman, S. (1994) ‘Resource-Based Strategy and Competitive Advantage Among Multinationals’, in P. Shrivastava, A.S. Huff and J.E. Dutton (eds.) Advances in Strategic Management, Vol. 10, Greenwich: CTL JAI Press, pp: 45–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galbraith, J.R. (2000) Designing the Global Corporation, Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gertner, D., Gertner, R. and Guthery, D. (2005) ‘Coca-Cola's marketing challenges in Brazil: the tubaínas war’, Thunderbird International Business Review 47 (2): 231–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghemawat, P. (2001) ‘Distance still matters’, Harvard Business Review 79 (8): 137–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goethals, J. and Ooghe, H. (1997) ‘The performance of foreign and national take-overs in Belgium’, European Business Review 97 (1): 24–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hagstrom, P. (1991) The ‘Wired MNC’: The Role of Information Systems for Structural Change in Complex Organizations, Stockholm School of Economics: Stockholm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, D.F. (1999) ‘Lincoln Electric's harsh lessons from international expansion’, Harvard Business Review 77 (3): 162–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedlund, G. (1986) ‘The hypermodern MNC: a heterarchy?’ Human Resource Management 25 (1): 9–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heil, O., Geroski, P. and Vlassopoulos, T. (1991) ‘The rise and fall of a market leader: frozen foods in the UK’, Strategic Management Journal 12 (6): 467–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henisz, W.J. and Williamson, O.E. (1999) ‘Comparative economic organization within and between countries’, Business and Politics 1 (3): 261–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hennart, J.-F. and Park, Y.-R. (1993) ‘Greenfield vs. acquisition: the strategy of Japanese investors in the United States’, Management Science 39 (9): 1054–1070.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hennart, J.-F. and Reddy, S. (1997) ‘The choice between mergers/acquisitions and joint ventures: the case of Japanese investors in the United States’, Strategic Management Journal 18 (1): 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hitt, M.A., Hoskisson, R.E. and Kim, H. (1997) ‘International diversification: effects on innovation and firm performance in product-diversified firms’, Academy of Management Journal 40 (4): 767–798.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoskisson, R.E. and Hitt, M.A. (1990) ‘Antecedents and performance outcomes of diversification: a review and critique of theoretical perspectives’, Journal of Management 16 (2): 461–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, Y.S. (1995) ‘The international transferability of the firm's advantages’, California Management Review 37 (4): 73–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hymer, S. (1976) The International Operations of National Firms: A Study of Direct Investment, MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johanson, J. and Vahlne, J.-E. (1977) ‘The internationalization process of the firm: a model of knowledge development and increasing foreign market commitments’, Journal of International Business Studies 8 (1): 23–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johanson, J. and Vahlne, J.-E. (1990) ‘The mechanism of internationalisation’, International Marketing Review 7 (4): 11–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johanson, J. and Wiedersheim-Paul, F. (1975) ‘The internationalization of the firm: four Swedish case studies’, Journal of Management Studies 12 (3): 305–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khanna, T., Palepu, K.G. and Sinha, J. (2005) ‘Strategies that fit emerging markets’, Harvard Business Review 83 (6): 63–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kobrin, S.J. (1979) ‘Political risk: a review and reconsideration’, Journal of International Business Studies 10 (1): 67–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kobrin, S.J. (2001) ‘Sovereignty@bay: Globalization, Multinational Enterprise, and the International Political System’, in A.M. Rugman and T.L. Brewer (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of International Business, Oxford University Press: New York, pp: 181–205.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kogut, B. (1985a) ‘Designing global strategies: comparative and competitive value-added chain’, Sloan Management Review 26 (4): 15–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kogut, B. (1985b) ‘Designing global strategies: profiting from operational flexibility’, Sloan Management Review 27 (1): 27–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kogut, B. and Zander, U. (1993) ‘Knowledge of the firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational corporation’, Journal of International Business Studies 24 (4): 625–645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kostova, T. and Zaheer, S. (1999) ‘Organizational legitimacy under conditions of complexity: the case of the multinational enterprise’, Academy of Management Review 24 (1): 64–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laurence, H., Yoshino, M. and Williamson, P.J. (1994) ‘Star TV’, in C.A. Bartlett and S. Ghoshal (eds.) Transnational Management: Text, Cases and Readings in Cross-Border Management, 3rd edn, Irwin McGraw-Hill: Boston, MA, pp. 464–482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leonard-Barton, D. (1992) ‘Core capabilities and core rigidities: a paradox in managing new product development’, Strategic Management Journal 13 (Summer special issue): 111–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levitt, T. (1983) ‘The globalization of markets’, Harvard Business Review 61 (3): 92–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, M.B. (1989) ‘The learning curve, technology barriers to entry, and competitive survival in the chemical processing industries’, Strategic Management Journal 10 (5): 431–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lippman, S.A. and Rumelt, R.P. (1982) ‘Uncertain imitability: an analysis of interfirm differences in efficiency under competition’, Bell Journal of Economics 13 (2): 418–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luo, Y., Shenkar, O. and Nyaw, M.K. (2002) ‘Mitigating liabilities of foreignness: defensive versus offensive approaches’, Journal of International Management 8 (3): 283–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madhok, A. (1997) ‘Cost, value and foreign market entry mode: the transaction and the firm’, Strategic Management Journal 18 (1): 39–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mata, J. and Portugal, P. (2002) ‘The survival of new domestic and foreign-owned firms’, Strategic Management Journal 23 (4): 323–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mezias, J.M. (2002a) ‘Identifying liabilities of foreignness and strategies to minimize their effects: the case of labor lawsuit judgments in the United States’, Strategic Management Journal 23 (3): 229–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mezias, J.M. (2002b) ‘How to identify liabilities of foreignness and assess their effects on multinational corporations’, Journal of International Management 8: 265–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. and Shamsie, J. (1996) ‘The resource-based view of the firm in two environments: the Hollywood film studios from 1936 to 1965’, Academy of Management Journal 39 (3): 519–543.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, S.R. and Parkhe, A. (2002) ‘Is there a liability of foreignness in global banking? An empirical test of banks’ x-efficiency’, Strategic Management Journal 23 (1): 55–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, C.A. (1995) ‘Of Diamonds and Rust: A New Look at Resources’, in C.A. Montgomery (ed.) Resource-Based and Evolutionary Theories of the Firm: Towards a Synthesis, Kluwer Academic Publishers: Boston, MA, pp: 251–268.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Munir, M. (2002) ‘Builder of troublesome projects in difficult places. Survey – Turkey: Infrastructure and investment’, Financial Times, 26 March, p: 2.

  • Nelson, R.R. and Winter, S.G. (1982) An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Belknap Harvard: Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neuborne, E. (1991) ‘Wal-Mart: Mexico offers rich retail market’, USA Today, 12 July, p: 03.B.

  • North, D.C. (1990) Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press: New York.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, C. (1997) ‘Sustainable competitive advantage: combining institutional and resource-based views’, Strategic Management Journal 18 (9): 697–6713.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, M.W. (2001) ‘The resource-based view and international business’, Journal of Management 27 (6): 803–829.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penrose, E. (1959) The Theory of the Growth of the Firm, Oxford University Press: Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peteraf, M.A. (1993) ‘The cornerstones of competitive advantage: a resource-based view’, Strategic Management Journal 14 (3): 179–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, B. and Pedersen, T. (2002) ‘Coping with liability of foreignness: different learning engagements of entrant firms’, Journal of International Management 8 (3): 339–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, R.A. and Jolibert, A.J.P. (1995) ‘A meta-analysis of country-of-origin effects’, Journal of International Business Studies 26 (4): 883–900.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Porter, M.E. (1985) Competitive Advantage, The Free Press: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter, M.E. (1990) The Competitive Advantage of Nations, The Free Press: New York.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Prahalad, C.K. and Bettis, R.A. (1986) ‘The dominant logic: a new linkage between diversity and performance’, Strategic Management Journal 7 (6): 485–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prahalad, C.K. and Doz, Y.L. (1987) The Multinational Mission, The Free Press: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prahalad, C.K. and Lieberthal, K. (1998) ‘The end of corporate imperialism’, Harvard Business Review 76 (4): 69–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ray, G., Barney, J.B. and Muhanna, W.A. (2004) ‘Capabilities, business processes, and competitive advantage: choosing the dependent variable in empirical tests of the resource-based view’, Strategic Management Journal 25 (1): 23–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ricks, D.A. (2000) Blunders in International Business, 3rd edn, Blackwell Publishers: Malden, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rugman, A.M. and Verbeke, A. (1992) ‘A note on the transnational solution and the transaction cost theory of multinational strategic management’, Journal of International Business Studies 23 (4): 761–771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schweiger, G., Haubl, G. and Friederes, G. (1995) ‘Consumers’ evaluations of products labeled “Made in Europe”’, Marketing and Research Today 23 (1): 25–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spar, D.L. (2001) ‘National Policies and Domestic Politics’, in A.M. Rugman and T.L. Brewer (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of International Business, Oxford University Press: New York, pp: 206–231.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Stopford, J.M. and Strange, S. (1992) Rival States, Rival Firms: Competition for World Market Shares, Cambridge University Press: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stopford, J.M. and Wells, L.T. (1972) Managing the Multinational Enterprise: Organization of the Firm and Ownership of the Subsidiaries, Basic Books: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szulanski, G. (1996) ‘Exploring internal stickiness: impediments to the transfer of best practice within the firm’, Strategic Management Journal 17 (Winter special issue): 27–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tallman, S.B. (1991) ‘Strategic management models and resource-based strategies among MNEs in a host market’, Strategic Management Journal 12 (Summer special issue): 69–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tallman, S.B. (1992) ‘A strategic management perspective on host country structure of multinational enterprises’, Journal of Management 18 (3): 455–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tallman, S.B. and Li, J. (1996) ‘Effects of international diversity and product diversity on the performance of multinational firms’, Academy of Management Journal 39 (1): 179–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tallman, S.B. and Yip, G.S. (2001) ‘Strategy and the Multinational Enterprise’, in A.M. Rugman and T.L. Brewer (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of International Business, Oxford University Press: New York, pp: 317–348.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Teece, D.J. (1986) ‘Profiting from technological innovation: implications for integration, collaboration, licensing and public policy’, Research Policy 15 (6): 285–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teece, D.J., Pisano, G. and Shuen, A. (1997) ‘Dynamic capabilities and strategic management’, Strategic Management Journal 18 (7): 509–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tirole, J. (1988) The Theory of Industrial Organization, MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, R. (1966) ‘International investment and international trade in the product cycle’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 80 (2): 190–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, R. (1977) Storm Over the Multinationals: The Real Issues, Harvard University Press: Boston, MA.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Welch, L. and Wiedersheim-Paul, F. (1980) ‘Internationalization at home’, Essays in International Business 2: 1–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wells, L.T. (1983) Third World Multinationals, MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wernerfelt, B. (1984) ‘A resource-based view of the firm’, Strategic Management Journal 5 (2): 171–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winter, S.G. and Szulanski, G. (2001) ‘Replication as strategy’, Organization Science 12 (6): 730–743.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaheer, S. (1995) ‘Overcoming the liability of foreignness’, Academy of Management Journal 38 (2): 341–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaheer, S. (2002) ‘The liability of foreignness, redux: a commentary’, Journal of International Management 8 (3): 351–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaheer, S. and Mosakowski, E. (1997) ‘The dynamics of the liability of foreignness: a global study of survival in financial services’, Strategic Management Journal 18 (6): 439–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zollo, M. and Winter, S.G. (2002) ‘Deliberate learning and the evolution of dynamic capabilities’, Organization Science 13 (3): 339–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The paper was created when the first author was Assistant Professor and the second and third authors were PhD students at the University of Minnesota. The financial support of the University of Minnesota is gratefully acknowledged. The comments of Scott Johnson, Miguel Ramos, Kendall Roth, Annique Un, Sri Zaheer, anonymous reviewers, the associate editor Nicolai Foss, and participants at the Research Seminar at the University of Minnesota, Academy of Management annual meeting, European International Business Academy annual meeting, and Academy of International Business annual meeting, helped improve previous versions of the paper. All errors remain ours.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Moore School of Business, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

    Alvaro Cuervo-Cazurra

  2. Department of Management, Opus College of Business, University of St Thomas, Minneapolis, MN, USA

    Mary M Maloney

  3. Faculty of Engineering, University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius

    Shalini Manrakhan

Authors
  1. Alvaro Cuervo-Cazurra
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mary M Maloney
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Shalini Manrakhan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alvaro Cuervo-Cazurra.

Additional information

Accepted by Arie Y Lewin, Editor-in-Chief, and Nicolai Juul Foss, Departmental Editor, 20 April 2007. This paper has been with the authors for two revisions.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cuervo-Cazurra, A., Maloney, M. & Manrakhan, S. Causes of the difficulties in internationalization. J Int Bus Stud 38, 709–725 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400295

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400295

Keywords

Search

Navigation