Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-x4r87 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T02:34:48.857Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

From ‘Normal Incidents’ to Political Crises: Understanding the Selective Politicization of Policy Failures1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2014

Abstract

This article aims to enhance understanding of selective politicization processes in policy failures and examine the attempts of policy-makers to use framing strategies to allocate blame. The policy response to alleged submarine intrusions in Sweden and Dutch military involvement in the fall of Srebrenica are the two case-studies used in this article. These cases will be analysed using three perspectives derived from the literature on framing: depicting events as violations of core public values; depicting events as operational incidents or as symptoms of endemic problems; allocating accountability and blame for the occurrence and/or ‘mismanagement’ of crisis. Finally, we present a conceptual framework of the different shapes that political blaming can take when certain framing strategies are adopted.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2003.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

1

We wish to express our gratitude to Paul ’t Hart for his invaluable support. We are also grateful to our colleagues at the Leiden University Crisis Research Centre and the Centre for Crisis Management Research and Training at the Swedish National Defence College for their useful comments in seminar discussions early on. Many thanks also to Chavi Nana for corrections.

References

2 Edelman, M., Constructing the Political Spectacle, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1988, p. 31 Google Scholar.

3 Bovens, M., Hart, P. 't and Peters, G., Success and Failure in Public Governance, Aldershot, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2001, p. 20 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 See Lasswell, H., A Pre-View of Policy Science, New York, Elsevier, 1971 Google Scholar; Lindblom, C. E., Inquiry and Change: The Troubled Attempt to Understand and Shape Society, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1990 Google Scholar.

5 Stone, D., Policy Paradox: The Art of Political Decision Making, New York, W. W. Norton, 1997 Google Scholar.

6 Buzan, B., Waever, O. and De Wilde, J., Security: A New Framework for Analysis, Boulder, Colo., Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998, p. 29 Google Scholar.

7 Bovens, M. A. P. and Hart, P. 't, Understanding Policy Fiascoes, New Brunswick, NJ, Transaction Publishers, 1996 Google Scholar.

8 Cf Kingdon, J., Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies, 2nd edn, New York, Harper-Collins, 1995, p. 98 Google Scholar.

9 Ellis, R., Presidential Lightning Rods – The Politics of Blame Avoidance, University Press of Kansas, 1994 Google Scholar; M. A. P. Bovens and P. 't Hart, Understanding Policy Fiascoes, op. cit.; Bovens, M., Hart, P. 't, Dekker, S. and Verheuvel, G., ‘The Politics of Blame Avoidance’, in Anheier, H., When Things Go Wrong, London, Sage, 1999, pp. 123–48Google Scholar; Gray, P., ‘Errors of Administrative Nature? Explaining the ‘Arms to Iraq’ Affair’, in Gray, P. and Hart, P. 't (eds) Public Policy Disasters in Western Europe, London, Routledge, 1998 Google Scholar; Hood, C., ‘The Risk Game and the Blame Game’, Government and Opposition, 37: 1 (2002), pp. 1537 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Rosenthal, U., Boin, R. A. and Comfort, L. (eds), Managing Crises: Threats, Dilemmas and Opportunities, Springfield, Illinois, Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 2001 Google Scholar.

11 Baumgartner, F. R. and Jones, B. D., Agendas and Instability in American Politics, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1993 Google Scholar; Baumgartner, F. R. and Jones, B. D. (eds) Policy Dynamics, University of Chicago Press, 2002 Google Scholar.

12 F. R. Baumgartner and B. D. Jones, 1993, ibid.; Schattschneider, E., The Semi-Sovereign People: A Realist's View of Democracy in America, New York, Holt, Rinehart Winston, 1960 Google Scholar.

13 Edelman, M., Political Language: Words that Succeed and Policies that Fail, New York, Academic Press, 1977 Google Scholar; Edelman, M., Constructing the Political Spectacle, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1988 Google Scholar; Kingdon, J., Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies, 2nd edn, New York, Harper-Collins, 1995 Google Scholar; M. A. P. Bovens and P. 't Hart, Understanding Policy Fiascoes, op. cit.; C. Hood, ‘The Risk Game and the Blame Game’, op. cit.

14 SOU, Ubåtsfrågan 1981–1994, Rapport från Ubåtskommissionen. Offentliga publikationer (Swedish State's official reports), 135, Stockholm, Fritzes, 1995 Google Scholar.

15 Speech by Prime Minister Bildt, Ubåtskrånkningarna mot Sverige–bakgrund, mönster och motiv, published by the Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences, 1991, p. 195 Google Scholar.

16 SOU, Ubåtsfrågan 1981–1994, SOU, Perspektiv på Ubåtsfrågan. Offentliga publikationer (Swedish State's official reports), 85, Stockholm, Fritzes 2001 Google Scholar.

17 SOU, Ubåtsfrågan 1981–1994.

18 Interview with Owe Wagermark, Head of Information at the Defence Headquarters in 1994. Cited in Brändström, A., Minkar eller ubåtar i den svenska ubåtsjakten, Crismart publication Vol. 8, The Swedish Agency for Civil Emergency Planning, Stockholm, Copy Print AB, 2000 Google Scholar.

19 Troliga ubåtar var troligen minkar’, Stockholm, TT (Swedish News Agency) 18 08 1994 Google Scholar.

20 ‘Hemliga brev om ubåtar’, Arbetet, Stockholm, 25 08 1994 Google Scholar.

21 ‘Bildts minkjakt är pinsam, tycker Carlsson’, Expressen, Stockholm, 3 09 1994 Google Scholar.

22 Interview with Owe Wagermark, Head of Information at the Defence Headquarters in 1994. Cited in A. Brändström, Minkar eller ubåtar

23 ‘Bildts brev till Jeltsin ifrågasatt?’, Svenska Dagbladet, Stockholm, SvD, 11 02 1995 Google Scholar.

24 Bildt had previously stated that the Swedish government had to ‘enlighten the Soviet leadership as to what went on’ through different channels; he was convinced that it would be the only way to stop the intrusions. Speech, Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences, 1991, p. 195.

25 Dagens Nyheter, A:4, Stockholm, DN, 19 02 1995 Google Scholar.

26 KU30, 94/95, bil B:110. Utfrågning av Carl Bildt, Konstitutionsutskottet (Swedish Parliamentary Standing Committee on the Constitution), Stockholm.

27 Bynander, F. (ed.), Ubåtsfrågan – ett symposium, Stockholm, Swedish National Defence College, 2002 Google Scholar.

28 Owen, D., Balkan Odyssey, London, Indigo, 1995, p. 353 Google Scholar.

29 Nederlands Instituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie (NIOD), Srebrenica: A ‘Safe’ Area – Epilogue, Amsterdam, Boom Publishers, 2002, pt. 5 (also available at www.niod.nl)Google Scholar.

30 J. W. Honig, ‘Avoiding War, Inviting Defeat: The Srebrenica Crisis, July 1995’, in U. Rosenthal, R. A. Boin and L. Comfort (eds), Managing Crises: Threats, Dilemmas and Opportunities, op. cit., pp. 61–73.

31 D. Owen, Balkan Odyssey, op. cit., p. 352.

32 Nederlands Instituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie (NIOD), op. cit., 2002, pt. 11.

33 J. W. Honig, ‘Avoiding War, Inviting Defeat: The Srebrenica Crisis, July 1995’, in Managing Crises: Threats, Dilemmas and Opportunities, op. cit.

34 NIOD, Srebrenica, op. cit., 2002, pt. 14.

36 Ibid.

36 ‘Kok neemt afstand van Srebrenica-uitspraak Pronk’, NRC Handelsblad, 4 04 2002 Google Scholar.

37 In answer to questions about whether he had felt forced to resign in reaction to Pronk's admission of guilt, Kok maintained that his considerations had been independent and sincere and not induced by the inferences of others, ‘De dag waarop Kok geschiedenis schreef’, NRC Handelsblad, 17 04 2002 Google Scholar.

38 Edelman, M., The Symbolic Uses of Politics, Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1964 Google Scholar; Edelman, M., Political Language: Words that Succeed and Policies that Fail, New York, Academic Press, 1977 Google Scholar; Edelman, M., Constructing the Political Spectacle, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1988 Google Scholar; Goffman, E., Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1975 Google Scholar; Hart, P. 't, ‘Symbols, Rituals and Power: The Lost Dimension of Crisis Management’, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, (1993), pp. 3650 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bovens, M. A. P., Hart, P. 't, Dekker, S. and Verheuvel, G., ‘The Politics of Blame Avoidance’, in Anheier, H. (ed.), When Things Go Wrong, London, Sage, 1999, pp. 123–48Google Scholar.

39 Kingdon, J., Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies, 2nd edn, New York, Harper Collins, 1995, pp. 90109 Google Scholar.

40 Edelman, M., From Art to Politics: How Artistic Creations Shape Political Conceptions, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1995 Google Scholar.

41 Kingdon, J., Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies, p. 104 Google Scholar.

42 Nelkin, D., ‘The Political Impact of Technical Expertise’, Social Studies of Science, 5 (1975), pp. 3554 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

43 Edelman, M., Political Language: Words that Succeed and Policies that Fail, New York, Academic Press, 1977 Google Scholar; see also Halper, T., Foreign Policy Crisis: Appearance and Reality in Decision Making, Columbus, Ohio, Merrill, 1971 Google Scholar; and Bostdorff, D., The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis, Columbia, University of South Carolina Press, 1994 Google Scholar.

44 Rochefort, D. and Cobb, R., The Politics of Problem Definition: Shaping the Policy Agenda, University Press of Kansas, 1994, p. 17 Google Scholar.

45 Beck, U., Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, London, Sage, 1993 Google Scholar; M. A. P. Bovens and P. ‘t Hart, Understanding Policy Fiascoes, op. cit.

46 Dearing, J. W. and Rogers, E. M., Agenda Setting, Thousand Oaks, Sage, 1996 Google Scholar; Kingdon, J., Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies, 2nd edn, New York, Harper-Collins, 1995 Google Scholar.

47 ‘Bildts minkjakt är pinsam, tycker Carlsson’, Expressen, Stockholm, 3 09 1994, p. 10 Google Scholar.

48 Carlsson knew that, by showing the letter to Utrikesnämnden (the advisory council on foreign affairs), it was sure to be leaked to the media. Memoirs of Carlsson, Ingvar, Ur skuggan av Olof Palme, Stockholm, Hjalmarson & Högberg bokförlag, 1999 Google Scholar.

49 KU30, 94/95, bil B: 110. Utfrågning av Carl Bildt, Konstitutionsutskottet (Swedish Parliamentary Standing Committee on the Constitution), Stockholm.

50 Dagens Nyheter, Stockholm, 19 02 1995 Google Scholar.

51 J. W. Honig, ‘Avoiding War, Inviting Defeat: The Srebrenica Crisis, July 1995’, in Managing Crises: Threats, Dilemmas and Opportunities, op. cit., p. 72.

52 Ibid.

53 Brouwer, A., ‘Sociaal geheugenverlies’, De Groene Amsterdammer, 21 04 2001 Google Scholar; Dijkink, G.J. W. (unpublished manuscript), Sociaal geheugenverlies, schokkende gebeurtenissen en openbaar bestuur, Amsterdam University, Department of Geography and Planning, 2001 Google Scholar.

54 Bovens, M. A. P. and Hart, P. 't, Understanding Policy Fiascoes, New Brunswick, NJ, Transaction Publishers, 1996 Google Scholar.

55 Cf. Baumgartner, F. R. and Jones, B. D., Agendas and Instability in American Politics, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1993, p. 35 Google Scholar.

56 Kok stated that he had wished to ‘take on responsibility in a visible way with respect to the victims and survivors of Srebrenica’, though he reasserted that there is a difference between being responsible, and taking on responsibility. ‘Paars wil rekening nu wel betalen’, NRC Handelsblad, 17 04 2002 Google Scholar.

57 Thompson, D. F., ‘Moral Responsibility of Public Officials: The Problem of Many Hands’, American Political Science Review, 3 (1980), pp. 905–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 Rochefort, D. and Cobb, R., The Politics of Problem Definition: Shaping the Policy Agenda, University Press of Kansas, 1994, p. 16 Google Scholar.

59 Ellis, R., Presidential Lightning Rods – The Politics of Blame Avoidance, University Press of Kansas, 1994 Google Scholar.

60 Cf. Jones, N., Sultans of Spin. The Media and the New Labour Government, London, Orion Books, 2000 Google Scholar.

61 See further C. Hood, ‘The Risk Game and the Blame Game’, op. cit.

62 Carlsson saw the subsequent accusations from Bildt and his party colleagues as a mockery. Memoirs of Ingvar Carlsson, Ur skuggan av Olof Palme, op. cit.

63 Interview with Bengt Gustafsson, Surpreme Commander of Defence, until June 1994. Cited in Brändström, A., Minkar eller ubåtar i den svenska ubåtsjakten, Crismart publication Vol. 8, The Swedish Agency for Civil Emergency Planning, Stockholm, Copy Print AB, 2000 Google Scholar.

64 United Nations, Report of the Secretary General pursuant to General assembly resolution 53/35, 1998.

65 ‘De Eer van een Franse generaal’, NRC Handelsblad, 30 11 2001 Google Scholar.

66 ‘Verklaring Premier Kok’, NRC Handelsblad, 16 04 2002 Google Scholar.

67 Cf. Keeler, J. T. S., ‘Opening the Window for Reform: Mandates, Crises and Extraordinary Policy Making’, Comparative Political Studies, 4 (1993), pp. 433–86Google Scholar; Boin, R. A. and Hart, P. ‘t, ‘Institutional Crises and Reforms in Policy Sectors’, in Wagenaar, H. (ed.), Governmental Institutions: Effects, Changes and Normative Foundations, Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000 Google Scholar.

68 Kingdon, J., Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies, 2nd edn, New York, Harper-Collins, 1995 Google Scholar.