ABSTRACT
There has recently been a great deal of interest in the potential of computer games to function as innovative educational tools. However, there is very little evidence of games fulfilling that potential. Indeed, the process of merging the disparate goals of education and games design appears problematic, and there are currently no practical guidelines for how to do so in a coherent manner. In this paper, we describe the successful, empirically validated teaching methods developed by behavioural psychologists and point out how they are uniquely suited to take advantage of the benefits that games offer to education. We conclude by proposing some practical steps for designing educational games, based on the techniques of Applied Behaviour Analysis. It is intended that this paper can both focus educational games designers on the features of games that are genuinely useful for education, and also introduce a successful form of teaching that this audience may not yet be familiar with.
- Admiraal, W., Wubbels, T., and Pilot, A. College teaching in legal education: Teaching method, students' time-on-task, and achievement. Research in Higher Education, 40 (1999), 687--704.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Amory, A., Naicker, K., Vincent, J., and Adams, C. The use of computer games as an educational tool: identification of appropriate game types and game elements. British Journal of Educational Technology, 30 (1999), 311--321.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Bay-Hinitz, A. K., Peterson, R. F., and Quilittch, H. R. Cooperative games: a way to modify aggressive and cooperative behaviors in young children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27 (1994), 435--446.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Bell, K. E., Young, K. R., Salzberg, C. L., and West, R. P. High school driver education using peer tutors, direct instruction, and precision teaching. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24 (1991), 45--51.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Bellotti, F., Berta, R., De Gloria, A., and Primavera, l. Enhancing the educational value of video games. ACM Computers in Entertainment, 7, 2 (2009), Article 23. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Bethesda Game Studios (2008). Fallout 3. {PC}, USA: Bethesda Softworks.Google Scholar
- Björk, S., & Holopainen, J. Patterns in game design. Hingham, MA: Charles River Media, 2004.Google Scholar
- Bogost, I. Persuasive Games. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Bruckman, A. Can Educational Be Fun? Game Developer's Conference, (1999).Google Scholar
- Catania, C. A. Learning, (4 ed). Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan Publishing, 1998.Google Scholar
- Christophersen, E. R., & Mortweet, S. L. Treatments that work: Empirically supported strategies for managing child behavior problems. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Clark, R. E. Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53, 4 (1983), 445--459.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., and Heward, W. L. Applied Behavior Analysis, (2 ed.). NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.Google Scholar
- De Aguilera, M. and Méndiz, A. Video Games and Education (Education in the Face of a "Parallel School"). ACM Computers in Entertainment, 1, (2003), Article 01. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Dondlinger, M. J. Educational Video Game Design: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Applied Educational Technology, 4 (2007), 21--31.Google Scholar
- Engelmann, S., Becker, W. C., Carnine, D., and Gersten, R. (1988). The direct instruction follow through model: Design and outcomes. Education and Treatment of Children, 11 (1988), 303--317.Google Scholar
- Fisch, S. M. Making Educational Computer Games "Educational". Proceedings of IDC '05, 56--61. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Ferster, C. B., Skinner, B. F., Cheney, C. D., Morse, W. H., & Dews, P. B. Schedules of Reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Foxx, R. M., McMorrow, M. J., and Mennemeier, M. Teaching social/vocational skills to retarded adults with a modified table game: an analysis of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 17 (1984), 343--352.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Frederick, W. C., and Walberg, H. J. Learning as a function of time. Journal of Educational Research, 73 (1980), 183--194.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Garris, R., Ahlers, R. and Driskell, J. E. Games, motivation, and learning: a research and practice model. Simulation & Gaming, 33 (2002), 441--467.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Gee, J. P. What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Gee, J. P. Learning by Design: Good video games as learning machines. E Learning, 2 (2005), 5--16.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Gredler, M. E. Games and simulations and their relationships to learning. In Jonassen, D. H. (2004) Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (pp. 571--583). Mahwah, NJ: IEA Publications., 2004.Google Scholar
- Habgood, M. P. J. The Effective Integration Of Digital Games And Learning Content. PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2007.Google Scholar
- Herrnstein, R. J. Relative and absolute strength of response as a function of frequency of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 4, 267--272, 1961.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Karweit, N. Time-on-task reconsidered: Synthesis of research on time and learning. Educational Leadership, 41 (1984), 32--35.Google Scholar
- Keller, F. S. Good-bye teacher... Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, (1968), 79--89.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Kiili, K. Educational Game Design: Experiential gaming model revised. Tampere University of Technology, Research report 3, 2005.Google Scholar
- Koster, R. A theory of fun for game design. Scottsdale, AZ: Paraglyph Press, 2005. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Lee, J., Luchini, K., Michael, B., Norris, C. and Soloway, E. More than just fun and games: Assessing the value of educational video games in the classroom. In Proceedings of CHI 2004, ACM Press (2004), 1375--1378. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Lieberman, D. Management of chronic pediatric diseases with interactive health games: Theory and research findings. Journal of Ambulatory Care Management 24, (2001), 26--38.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Lindsley, O. R. From Skinner to precision teaching: The child knows best. In J. B. Jordan & L. S. Robbins (Eds.), Let's try doing something else kind of thing, 1--11. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children, 1971.Google Scholar
- Lindsley, O. R. Precision teaching: discoveries and effects. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, (1992a), 51--57.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Lindsley, O. R. Why aren't effective teaching tools widely adopted? Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 259, (1992b), 21--26.Google Scholar
- Loftus, G. R., & Loftus, E. F. Mind at Play: The Psychology of Video Games. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1983. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Lovaas, O. I. Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55 (1987), 3--9.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Malone, T. W. Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 5 (1981), 333--369.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitute, Learning and Instruction: III. Conative and affective process analyses (pp. 223--253). Hilsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
- Malouf, D. B. The effect of instructional computer games on continuing student motivation. Journal of Special Education, 21, (1987), 27--38.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Mayo, M. J. Games for science and engineering education. Communications of the ACM, 50 (2007), 31--35. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Medland M. B., and Stachnik, T. J. Good-behavior game: a replication and systematic analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53 (1972), 45--51, 1979.Google ScholarCross Ref
- McClean, P., Saini-Eidukat, B., Schwert, D., Slator, B., and White, A. Virtual worlds in large-enrollment science classes significantly improve authentic learning. In J. Chambers, (ed.) Selected Papers from the 12th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning, (2001), 111--118.Google Scholar
- Moreno-Ger, P., Burgos, D., Martínez-Ortiz, I., Sierra, J.L., and Fernández-Manjón, B. Educational game design for online education. Computers in Human Behavior, 24 (2008) 2530--2540. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Olympia, D. E., Sheridan, S. M., Jenson, W. R., & Andrews, D. Using student-managed interventions to increase homework completion and accuracy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27 (1994), 85--99.Google ScholarCross Ref
- O'Neil, H. F., Wainess, R. and Baker, E. L. Classification of learning outcomes: evidence from the computer games literature. The Curriculum Journal, 16 (2005), 455--474.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Pivec, M., and Kearney, P. Games for Learning and Learning from Games. Informatica, 31 (2007), 419--423.Google Scholar
- Prensky, M. Digital Game-Based Learning. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2001.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Rosas, R., Nussbaum, M., Cumsille, P., Marianov, V., Correa, M., Flores, P., Grau, V. Lagos, F., Lopez, X., Lopez, V., Rodriguez, P., Salinas, M. Beyond Nintendo: design and assessment of educational video games for first and second grade students. Computers & Education, 40 (2003) 71--94. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Ruben, B. D. Simulations, Games, and Experience-Based Learning: The Quest for a New Paradigm for Teaching and Learning. Simulation & Gaming, 30 (1999), 498--505. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Salen, K. and Zimmerman, E. Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2004. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Saville, B. K., Zinn, T. E., Neef, N. A., Van Norman, N., and Ferreri, S. J. A comparison of interteaching and lecture in the college classroom. Journal Of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39 (2006), 49--61.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Skinner, B. F. Science and Human Behavior. New York: The Free Press, 1953.Google Scholar
- Skinner, B. F. About Behaviorism. New York: Random House, 1974.Google Scholar
- Skinner E. A. and Belmont, M. J. Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behaviour and student engagement across the school year, Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, (1993), 571--581.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Swartout, W., and Van Lent, M. Making a game of system design. Communications of the ACM, 46 (2003), 32--39. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Turnbull, M., Lapkin, S., Hart, D., and Swain, M. Time on task and immersion graduates' French proficiency. In S. Lapkin (ed.), French second language education in Canada: Empirical studies (pp. 31--55). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Index Terms
- Practical, appropriate, empirically-validated guidelines for designing educational games
Recommendations
Designing entertaining educational games using procedural rhetoric: a case study
Sandbox '10: Proceedings of the 5th ACM SIGGRAPH Symposium on Video GamesIn the paper we describe the design and development of a video game about sustainable energy use that effectively unites fun with learning. We also present results from an initial study of the educational impact of the game. Many educational games do ...
Designing an educational game: case study of 'Europe 2045'
Transactions on edutainment IThis paper presents a theoretical framework, which has been adopted in designing an on-line multi-player strategy game Europe 2045. Europe 2045 is an educational tool for high school social science courses, aimed at familiarizing students with political,...
A model to analyze and design educational games with pedagogical foundations
ACE '15: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment TechnologyFor years, educational game designers have paid close attention to the development of entertaining experiences for students. Yet, as experts point out, an overwhelming number of projects do not have rigorous Pedagogical foundations. Additionally, many ...
Comments