skip to main content
research-article

Older Adults’ Deployment of ‘Distrust’

Published:09 August 2018Publication History
Skip Abstract Section

Abstract

Older adults frequently deploy the concept of distrust when discussing digital technologies, and it is tempting to assume that distrust is largely responsible for the reduced uptake by older adults witnessed in the latest surveys of technology use. To help understand the impact of distrust on adoption behavior, we conducted focus groups with older adults exploring how, in what circumstances, and to what effect older adults articulate distrust in digital technologies. Our findings indicate that distrust is not especially relevant to older adults’ practical decision making around technology (non-)use. The older adults in our study used the language of distrust to open up discussions around digital technologies to larger issues related to values. This suggests that looking to distrust as a predictor of non-use (e.g., in Technology Acceptance Model studies) may be uniquely unhelpful in the case of older adults, as it narrows the discussion of technology acceptance and trust to interactional issues, when their use of distrust pertains to much wider concerns. Likewise, technology adoption should not be viewed as indicative of trust or an endorsement of technology acceptability. Older adults using-while-distrusting offers important insights into how to design truly acceptable digital technologies.

References

  1. Icek Ajzen. 1991. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50, 2 (1991), 179--211.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  2. Katrin Arning and Martina Ziefle. 2007. Understanding age differences in PDA acceptance and performance. Computers in Human Behavior 23, 6 (2007), 2904--2927. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  3. Annette Baier. 1986. Trust and antitrust. Ethics 96, 2 (1986), 231--260.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  4. Scott Beach, Richard Schulz, Julie Downs, Judith Matthews, Bruce Barron, and Katherine Seelman. 2009. Disability, age, and informational privacy attitudes in quality of life technology applications: Results from a national web survey. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing 2, 1 (2009), 5. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  5. Maria Beimborn, Selma Kadi, Nina Köberer, Mara Mühleck, and Mone Spindler. 2016. Focusing on the human: Interdisciplinary reflections on ageing and technology. Ageing and Technology: Perspectives from the Social Sciences, Emma Domínguez-Rué and Linda Nierling (Eds.). Transcript Verlag.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  6. France Bélanger and Lemuria Carter. 2008. Trust and risk in e-government adoption. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems 17, 2 (2008), 165--176. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  7. Izak Benbasat and Weiquan Wang. 2005. Trust in and adoption of online recommendation agents. Journal of the Association for Information Systems 6, 3 (2005), 4.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  8. Grant Blank and William H. Dutton. 2012. Age and trust in the internet: The centrality of experience and attitudes toward technology in Britain. Social Science Computer Review 30, 2 (2012), 135--151. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  9. Naomi Bloch and Betram C. Bruce. 2011. Older adults and the new public sphere. In Proceedings of the 2011 iConference. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  10. Andrea Botero and K. Kommonen. 2009. Coordinating everyday life: The design of practices and tools in the “life project” of a group of active seniors. In Proceedings of COST 298 Conference: The Good, the Bad and the Challenging. 745.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  11. Eva Brandt, Thomas Binder, Lone Malmborg, and Tomas Sokoler. 2010. Communities of everyday practice and situated elderliness as an approach to co-design for senior interaction. In Proceedings of the 22nd Conference of the Computer-Human Interaction Special Interest Group of Australia on Computer-Human Interaction. ACM, 400--403. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  12. Robin Brewer and Anne Marie Piper. 2016. Tell it like it really is: A case of online content creation and sharing among older adult bloggers. In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 5529--5542. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  13. Christopher N. Bull, Will Simm, Bran Knowles, Oliver Bates, Nigel Davies, Anindita Banerjee, Lucas Introna, and Niall Hayes. 2017. Mobile age: Open data mobile apps to support independent living. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA’17). ACM, 2410--2415. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  14. Ann Carrns. 2017. Why older people are vulnerable to fraud, and how to protect them. The New York Times (17 February 2017). Retrieved from http://tinyurl.com/zkbat6p.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  15. Rajarshi Chakraborty, Jaeung Lee, Sharmistha Bagchi-Sen, Shambhu Upadhyaya, and H. Raghav Rao. 2016. Online shopping intention in the context of data breach in online retail stores: An examination of older and younger adults. Decision Support Systems 83 (2016), 47--56. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  16. Ke Chen and Alan H. S. Chan. 2011. A review of technology acceptance by older adults. Gerontechnology 10, 1 (2011), 1--12.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  17. Graeme W. Coleman, Lorna Gibson, Vicki L. Hanson, Ania Bobrowicz, and Alison McKay. 2010. Engaging the disengaged: How do we design technology for digitally excluded older adults? In Proceedings of the 8th ACM Conference on Designing Interactive Systems. ACM, 175--178. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  18. Juliet M. Corbin and Anselm Strauss. 1990. Grounded theory research: Procedures, canons, and evaluative criteria. Qualitative Sociology 13, 1 (1990), 3--21.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  19. Sara J. Czaja, Neil Charness, Arthur D. Fisk, Christopher Hertzog, Sankaran N. Nair, Wendy A. Rogers, and Joseph Sharit. 2006. Factors predicting the use of technology: Findings from the center for research and education on aging and technology enhancement (CREATE). Psychology and Aging 21, 2 (2006), 333.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  20. Fred D. Davis. 1989. Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly 13, 3 (1989), 319--340. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  21. Fred D. Davis, Richard P. Bagozzi, and Paul R. Warshaw. 1992. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation to use computers in the workplace1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 22, 14 (1992), 1111--1132.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  22. Marianne Dee and Vicki L. Hanson. 2016. A pool of representative users for accessibility research: Seeing through the eyes of the users. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing 8, 1 (Jan. 2016), Article 4, 31 pages. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  23. Susannah Fox. 2001. Wired Seniors: A Fervent Few, Inspired By Family Ties. Pew Internet 8 American Life Project.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  24. Harold Garfinkel. 1964. Studies of the routine grounds of everyday activities. Social Problems 11, 3 (1964), 225--250.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  25. David Gefen, Elena Karahanna, and Detmar W. Straub. 2003. Trust and TAM in online shopping: An integrated model. MIS Quarterly 27, 1 (2003), 51--90. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  26. Lorna Gibson, Paula Forbes, and Vicki Hanson. 2010. What can the ‘ash cloud’ tell us about older adults’ technology adoption. In Proceedings of the 12th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility. ACM, 301--302. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  27. Peter Gregor, Alan F. Newell, and Mary Zajicek. 2002. Designing for dynamic diversity: Interfaces for older people. In Proceedings of the Fifth International ACM Conference on Assistive Technologies (ASSETS’02). ACM, New York, NY, 151--156. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  28. Vicki L. Hanson. 2009. Age and web access: The next generation. In Proceedings of the 2009 International Cross-Disciplinary Conference on Web Accessibililty (W4A). ACM, 7--15. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  29. Vicki L. Hanson. 2010. Influencing technology adoption by older adults. Interacting with Computers 22, 6 (2010), 502--509. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  30. Vicki L. Hanson, Anna Cavender, and Shari Trewin. 2015. Writing about accessibility. Interactions 22, 6 (2015), 62--65. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  31. Richard H. R. Harper. 2014. Trust, Computing, and Society. Cambridge University Press. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  32. Richard H. R. Harper, Sean Rintel, Rod Watson, and Kenton O’Hara. 2017. The ‘interrogative gaze’: Making video calling and messaging ‘accountable’. Pragmatics 27, 3 (2017), 319--350.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  33. Mark Horst, Margôt Kuttschreuter, and Jan M. Gutteling. 2007. Perceived usefulness, personal experiences, risk perception and trust as determinants of adoption of e-government services in The Netherlands. Computers in Human Behavior 23, 4 (2007), 1838--1852. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  34. Magdalena Kania-Lundholm and Sandra Torres. 2015. The divide within: Older active ICT users position themselves against different ‘others’. Journal of Aging Studies 35 (2015), 26--36.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  35. Sunyoung Kim, Krzysztof Z. Gajos, Michael Muller, and Barbara J. Grosz. 2016. Acceptance of mobile technology by older adults: A preliminary study. In Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services. ACM, 147--157. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  36. Bran Knowles. 2016. Emerging trust implications of data-rich systems. IEEE Pervasive Computing 15, 4 (2016), 76--84. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  37. Bran Knowles and Vicki L. Hanson. 2018. The wisdom of older technology (non)users. Communications of the ACM 61, 3 (March 2018), 72--77. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  38. Swapna Kolimi, Feng Zhu, and Sandra Carpenter. 2012. Is older, wiser? An age-specific study of exposure of private information. In Proceedings of the 50th Annual Southeast Regional Conference. ACM, 30--35. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  39. Steve Kroft. 2014. The Data Brokers: Selling your personal information. Retrieved from http://tinyurl.com/kgautlc. (2014).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  40. Olli Lagerspetz. 2014. The worry about trust. In Trust, Computing, and Society, 120 pages.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  41. Nancy K. Lankton and D. Harrison McKnight. 2011. What does it mean to trust Facebook? Examining technology and interpersonal trust beliefs. ACM SiGMiS Database 42, 2 (2011), 32--54. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  42. Vilma Lehtinen, Jaana Näsänen, and Risto Sarvas. 2009. A little silly and empty-headed: Older adults’ understandings of social networking sites. In Proceedings of the 23rd British HCI Group Annual Conference on People and Computers: Celebrating People and Technology. British Computer Society, 45--54. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  43. Rock Leung, Charlotte Tang, Shathel Haddad, Joanna Mcgrenere, Peter Graf, and Vilia Ingriany. 2012. How older adults learn to use mobile devices: Survey and field investigations. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing (TACCESS) 4, 3 (2012), 11. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  44. Xin Li, Traci J. Hess, and Joseph S. Valacich. 2008. Why do we trust new technology? A study of initial trust formation with organizational information systems. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems 17, 1 (2008), 39--71. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  45. Ann Light, Tuck W. Leong, and Toni Robertson. 2015. Ageing well with CSCW. In Proceedings of the 14th European Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (ECSCW’15), 19--23 September 2015, Oslo, Norway. Springer, 295--304.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  46. Stephen Lindsay, Daniel Jackson, Guy Schofield, and Patrick Olivier. 2012. Engaging older people using participatory design. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 1199--1208. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  47. Linda Little and Pam Briggs. 2009. Pervasive healthcare: The elderly perspective. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Pervasive Technologies Related to Assistive Environments. ACM, 71. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  48. Meika Loe. 2010. Doing it my way: Old women, technology and wellbeing. Sociology of Health 8 Illness 32, 2 (2010), 319--334.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  49. Qi Ma, Ke Chen, Alan Hoi Shou Chan, and Pei-Lee Teh. 2015. Acceptance of ICTs by older adults: A review of recent studies. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population. Springer, 239--249. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  50. D. Harrison McKnight. 2005. Trust in information technology. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management 7 (2005), 329--331.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  51. Anne-Sophie Melenhorst, Wendy A. Rogers, and Don G. Bouwhuis. 2006. Older adults’ motivated choice for technological innovation: Evidence for benefit-driven selectivity. Psychology and Aging 21, 1 (2006), 190.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  52. Tracy L. Mitzner, Julie B. Boron, Cara Bailey Fausset, Anne E. Adams, Neil Charness, Sara J. Czaja, Katinka Dijkstra, Arthur D. Fisk, Wendy A. Rogers, and Joseph Sharit. 2010. Older adults talk technology: Technology usage and attitudes. Computers in Human Behavior 26, 6 (2010), 1710--1721. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  53. Michael Mulkay. 1979. Knowledge and utility: Implications for the sociology of knowledge. Social Studies of Science 9, 1 (1979), 63--80.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  54. Laxman U. S. Nayak, Lee Priest, and Allan P. White. 2010. An application of the technology acceptance model to the level of Internet usage by older adults. Universal Access in the Information Society 9, 4 (2010), 367--374. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  55. Alan F. Newell, Anna Dickinson, Mick J. Smith, and Peter Gregor. 2006. Designing a portal for older users: A case study of an industrial/academic collaboration. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction 13, 3 (September 2006), 347--375. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  56. Alan F. Newell and Peter Gregor. 1999. Extra-ordinary human--machine interaction: What can be learned from people with disabilities? Cognition, Technology 8 Work 1, 2 (1999), 78--85.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  57. N. H. S. England. 2016. The care.data programme. Retrieved from: http://tinyurl.com/jalgcva.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  58. Helen Nissenbaum. 2009. Privacy in Context: Technology, Policy, and the Integrity of Social Life. Stanford University Press. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  59. Donald A. Norman. 2013. The Design of Everyday Things: Revised and Expanded Edition. Basic Books.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  60. Michael Obal and Werner Kunz. 2013. Trust development in e-services: A cohort analysis of millennials and baby boomers. Journal of Service Management 24, 1 (2013), 45--63.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  61. Ofcom. 2009. Media Literacy Audit -- Digital Lifestyles: Adults Aged 60 and Over. Ofcom, London. https://www.ofcom.org.uk/research-and-data/media-literacy-research/adults/digital-lifestyles-60.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  62. Saokosal Oum and DongWook Han. 2011. An empirical study of the determinants of the intention to participate in user-created contents (UCC) services. Expert Systems with Applications 38, 12 (2011), 15110--15121. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  63. Leysia Palen and Marilyn Salzman. 2002. Beyond the handset: Designing for wireless communications usability. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction 9, 2 (2002), 125--151. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  64. Shuya Pan and Maryalice Jordan-Marsh. 2010. Internet use intention and adoption among Chinese older adults: From the expanded technology acceptance model perspective. Computers in Human Behavior 26, 5 (2010), 1111--1119. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  65. Paul A. Pavlou. 2003. Consumer acceptance of electronic commerce: Integrating trust and risk with the technology acceptance model. International Journal of Electronic Commerce 7, 3 (2003), 101--134. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  66. Trevor J. Pinch and Wiebe E. Bijker. 1984. The social construction of facts and artefacts: Or how the sociology of science and the sociology of technology might benefit each other. Social Studies of Science 14, 3 (1984), 399--441.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  67. Jens Riegelsberger, M. Angela Sasse, and John D. McCarthy. 2005. The mechanics of trust: A framework for research and design. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 62, 3 (2005), 381--422. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  68. Yvonne Rogers, Jeni Paay, Margot Brereton, Kate L. Vaisutis, Gary Marsden, and Frank Vetere. 2014. Never too old: Engaging retired people inventing the future with MaKey MaKey. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 3913--3922. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  69. M. Angela Sasse and Iacovos Kirlappos. 2014. Design for Trusted and Trustworthy Services: Why We Must Do Better. Cambridge University Press, 229--249.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  70. Christine Satchell and Paul Dourish. 2009. Beyond the user: Use and non-use in HCI. In Proceedings of the 21st Annual Conference of the Australian Computer-Human Interaction Special Interest Group: Design: Open 24/7. ACM, 9--16. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  71. Supriya Singh and Clive Morley. 2009. Young Australians’ privacy, security and trust in internet banking. In Proceedings of the 21st Annual Conference of the Australian Computer-Human Interaction Special Interest Group: Design: Open 24/7. ACM, 121--128. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  72. Aaron Smith. 2014. Older adults and technology use: Adoption is increasing, but many seniors remain isolated from digital life. Pew Research Center.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  73. Özge Subasi, Lone Malmborg, Geraldine Fitzpatrick, and Britt Östlund. 2014. Reframing design culture and aging. Interactions 21, 2 (2014), 70--73. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  74. Lucy Suchman and Libby Bishop. 2000. Problematizing “innovation” as a critical project. Technology Analysis 8 Strategic Management 12, 3 (2000), 327--333.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  75. Lucy A Suchman. 1987. Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-Machine Communication. Cambridge University Press. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  76. Yuling Sun, Xianghua Ding, Silvia Lindtner, Tun Lu, and Ning Gu. 2014. Being senior and ICT: A study of seniors using ICT in China. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 3933--3942. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  77. The Telegraph. 2009. Older people ‘increasingly isoluated due to internet’. The Telegraph (7 October 2009). Retrieved from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/6266984/Older-people-increasingly-isolated-due-to-internet.htmlGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  78. Viswanath Venkatesh, Michael G. Morris, Gordon B. Davis, and Fred D. Davis. 2003. User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly (2003), 425--478. Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  79. John Vines, Mark Blythe, Paul Dunphy, and Andrew Monk. 2011. Eighty something: Banking for the older old. In Proceedings of the 25th BCS Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. British Computer Society, 64--73. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  80. John Vines, Paul Dunphy, Mark Blythe, Stephen Lindsay, Andrew Monk, and Patrick Olivier. 2012. The joy of cheques: Trust, paper and eighty somethings. In Proceedings of the ACM 2012 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work. ACM, 147--156. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  81. John Vines, Gary Pritchard, Peter Wright, Patrick Olivier, and Katie Brittain. 2015. An age-old problem: Examining the discourses of ageing in HCI and strategies for future research. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction 22, 1 (2015), 2. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  82. Jane Wakefield. 2010. Old meets new in digital divide. BBC News {online} (15 October 2010). Retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-11501622.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  83. Jenny Waycott, Frank Vetere, Sonja Pedell, Lars Kulik, Elizabeth Ozanne, Alan Gruner, and John Downs. 2013. Older adults as digital content producers. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 39--48. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  84. Jenny Waycott, Frank Vetere, Sonja Pedell, Amee Morgans, Elizabeth Ozanne, and Lars Kulik. 2016. Not for me: Older adults choosing not to participate in a social isolation intervention. In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 745--757. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  85. Mary Zajicek. 2007. Web 2.0: Hype or happiness? In Proceedings of the 2007 International Cross-disciplinary Conference on Web Accessibility (W4A’07). ACM, 35--39. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  86. Kathryn Zickuhr and Mary Madden. 2012. Older adults and internet use: For the first time, half of adults ages 65 and older are online. Pew Internet 8 American Life Project, Washington, DC.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  87. Donna M. Zulman, Matthias Kirch, Kai Zheng, and Lawrence C. An. 2011. Trust in the internet as a health resource among older adults: Analysis of data from a nationally representative survey. Journal of Medical Internet Research 13, 1 (2011), e19.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref

Index Terms

  1. Older Adults’ Deployment of ‘Distrust’

            Recommendations

            Comments

            Login options

            Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.

            Sign in

            Full Access

            • Published in

              cover image ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction
              ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction  Volume 25, Issue 4
              August 2018
              170 pages
              ISSN:1073-0516
              EISSN:1557-7325
              DOI:10.1145/3266364
              Issue’s Table of Contents

              Copyright © 2018 ACM

              Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected]

              Publisher

              Association for Computing Machinery

              New York, NY, United States

              Publication History

              • Published: 9 August 2018
              • Accepted: 1 March 2018
              • Revised: 1 February 2018
              • Received: 1 June 2017
              Published in tochi Volume 25, Issue 4

              Permissions

              Request permissions about this article.

              Request Permissions

              Check for updates

              Qualifiers

              • research-article
              • Research
              • Refereed

            PDF Format

            View or Download as a PDF file.

            PDF

            eReader

            View online with eReader.

            eReader

            HTML Format

            View this article in HTML Format .

            View HTML Format