Skip to main content Skip to main navigation menu Skip to site footer
Responsive image
Issue: Vol. 3630 No. 3: 21 Mar. 2013
Type: Articles
Published: 2013-03-21
DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3630.3.3
Page range: 445–466
Abstract views: 246
PDF downloaded: 6

Review of the systematics, biology and ecology of lice from pinnipeds and river otters (Insecta: Phthiraptera: Anoplura: Echinophthiriidae)

Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro Nacional Patagónico (CONICET), Puerto Madryn, Provincia de Chubut, Argentina
Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand
Phthiraptera Anoplura Echinophthiriidae Echinophthirius Antarctophthirus Lepidophthirus Proechinophthirus Latagophthirus sucking lice Pinnipedia Otariidae Odobenidae Phocidae Mustelidae fur seals sea lions walruses true seals river otter

Abstract

We present a literature review of the sucking louse family Echinophthiriidae, its five genera and twelve species parasitic on pinnipeds (fur seals, sea lions, walruses, true seals) and the North American river otter. We give detailed synonymies and published records for all taxonomic hierarchies, as well as hosts, type localities and repositories of type material; we highlight significant references and include comments on the current taxonomic status of the species. We provide a summary of present knowledge of the biology and ecology for eight species. Also, we give a host-louse list, and a bibliography to the family as complete as possible.

References

  1. Anderson, S.S., Bonner, W.N., Baker, J.R. & Richards, R. (1974) Grey seals, Halichoerus grypus, of the Dee Estuary and observations on a characteristic skin lesion in British seals. Journal of Zoology, 174, 429–440.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1974.tb03170.x

    Arthur, D.R. (1976) Interaction between arthropod ectoparasites and warm blooded hosts. Chapter 8. In: Kennedy, C.R. (ed.), Ecological Aspects of Parasitology. Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company. pp. 163–183.

    Ass, M.J. (1934) Anoplura der Walrosse. Trudy Arkticheskogo Instituta, Leningrad [Transactions of the Arctic Institute, Leningrad], 9, 89–105 [in Russian with German summary].

    Ass, M.J. (1935) Ektoparasiten der Baikalrobbe. Trudy Baikal'skoi Limnologicheskoi Stantsii [Travaux de la Station Limnologique du Lac Bajkal], 6, 23–29 [in Russian with German summary].

    Ass, M.J. (1962) Zur Kenntnis der Anatomie und Morphologie der Robbenläuse. Byulleten Moskovskogo obshchestva ispytatelei prirody. Otdel biologicheskii, 67, 55–60 [in Russian with German summary].

    Ass, M.J. (1963) Zur Anatomie und Morphologie der Anoplura pinnipediorum. Československá Parasitologie, 10, 5–12 [in Russian with German summary].

    Australian Museum (2012) Australian species of Family Echinophthiriidae. Antarctophthirus mawsoni Harrison, 1937. Accessed via the Atlas of Living Australia (www.ala.org.au).
    http://biocache.ala.org.au/occurrence/2a1b9922-072a-4cfe-ac49-8272b2c3cfc2

    Aznar, F.J., Balbuena, J.A., Fernandez, M. & Raga, J.A. (2001) Living together: the parasites of marine mammals. Chapter 11. In: Evans, P.G.H. & Raga, J.A. (eds), Marine Mammals: Biology and Conservation. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York. pp. 385–421.

    Aznar, F.J., Leonardi M.S., Berón-Vera, B., Vales, D.G., Ameghino, S., Raga, J.A. & Crespo, E.A. (2009) Population dynamics of Antarctophthirus microchir (Anoplura: Echinophthiriidae) in pups from South American sea lion, Otaria flavescens, in Northern Patagonia. Parasitology, 136, 293–303.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0031182008005441

    Barker, S.C. (1996) Echinophthiriidae. In: Wells, A. (ed.), Zoological Catalogue of Australia. Volume 26. Psocoptera, Phthiraptera, Thysanoptera. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, pp. 236–237.

    Beaucournu, J.-C. (1993) Poux et puces… temoins ou faux temoins de l’histoire de leurs hotes?. [Lice and fleas: true or false indicators?]. Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France—Evolution et Zoologie, 118, 11–24 [in French with English summary].

    Becher, E. (1886) Insekten von Jan Mayen. Gesammelt von Dr. F. Fischer, Arzt der Österreichischen Expedition auf Jan Mayen. In: Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften (eds), Die Internationale Polarforschung 1882-1883. Die Österreichische Polarstation Jan Mayen ausgerüstet durch seine Excellenz Graf Hanns Wilczek, geleitet vom k. k. Corvetten-Capitän Emil Edlen von Wohlgemuth. Beobachtungs-Ergebnisse (Zoologie). Karl Gerolds´s Sohn, Wien. Volume 3. pp. 59–66, pl. 5.

    Becker, G.K., Robaldo, R.B., Bianchini, A., Colares, E.P., Martinez, P.E., Muelbert, M.M. & Brum, J.G.W. (2000) Lepidophthirus macrorhini (Anoplura: Echinophthiridae [sic]) em elephante-marinho do sul (Mirounga leonina) na Ilha Elefante (Shetlands do Sul - Antártica). Arquivos do Instituto Biologico, São Paulo, 67, 255–256.

    Beder, G. (1990) Rasterelektronenmikroskopische studie der robbenlaus Echinophthiridus horridus (Olfers, 1816). Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Allgemeine und Angewandte Entomologie, 7, 512–516.

    Bedford, G.A.H. (1929) Anoplura (Siphunculata and Mallophaga) from South African hosts. 15th Annual report of the Director of Veterinary Services, Union of South Africa, 501–549.

    Bedford, G.A.H. (1932) A synoptic check-list and host-list of the ectoparasites found on South African Mammalia, Aves and Reptilia. (Second edition). 18th Report of the Director of Veterinary Services and Animal Industry, Union of South Africa, 223–523.

    Blagoveshtchensky, D.I. (1958) Mallophaga and Anoplura from animals of the Wrangel Island. Entomological Review, 37, 374–379. English translation of Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie, 37(2), 374–379 [in Russian with English summary].

    Blagoveshtchensky, D.I. (1964) Order Anoplura. (Siphunculata)—Sucking lic e. In: Bei-Bienko, G.Y. (ed.), Keys to the Insects of the European USSR. Volume I, Apterygota, Palaeoptera, Hemimetabola. Akademiya Nauk SSSR. 936 pp. [in Russian]. English translation 1967, pp. 324–334.

    Blagoveshtchensky, D.I. (1966) New forms of lice (Siphunculata) parasitic on seals and hares. Entomological Review, 45, 457–460. English translation of Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie, 45(4), 806–813 [in Russian with English summary].

    Bohemann, C.H. (1865) Spetsbergens insekt-fauna. Öfversigt af Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Förhandlingar, Kobnhaven, 22, 563–580, pl. 35.

    Bonner, W.N (1972) The grey seal and common seal in European waters. Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review, 10, 461–507.

    Bonner, N. (1981) Grey seal. Halichoerus grypus Fabricius, 1791 [sic], figs 1–5. In: Ridgway, S.H. & Harrison, R.J. (eds), Handbook of marine mammals. Volume 2: Seals. Academic Press Inc., London, pp. 111–144.

    Boness, D.J. (2002) Sea lions, overview. Pp. 1066–1069, fig. 1. In: Perrin, W.F.,Würsig, B. & Thewissen, J.G.M. (eds), Encyclopedia of marine mammals. Academic Press, San Diego, California. xxxviii + 1414 pp., 16 pls.

    Borror, D.J. & DeLong, D.M. (1964) An introduction to the study of insects. Revised edition. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., New York. xii + 819 pp.

    Breddin, G. (1901) Die Hemipteren und Siphunculaten des arktischen Gebietes. Fauna Arctica, 2, 529–560.

    Brinck, P. (1948a) Catalogus Insectorum Sueciae. IX. Anoplura. Opuscula Entomologica, 13, 129–133.

    Brinck, P. (1948b) Notes on Anoplura. Especially with regard to the Swedish species Opuscula Entomologica, 13, 134–156.

    Brown, D.H., McIntyre, R.W., Delli Quadri, C.A. & Schroeder, R.J. (1960) Health problems of captive dolphins and seals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 137, 534–538.

    Burmeister, H.C.C. (1838) Genera Insectorum. Rhynchota. 8. Berlin (no pagination).

    Calaby, J.H. (1970). Phthiraptera (Lice). Chapter 25. In: Division of Entomology, CSIRO, The Insects of Australia. Melbourne University Press, Carlton. pp. 376–386.

    Calaby, J.H. & Murray, M.D. (1991) Phthiraptera (Lice). Chapter 29. In: Naumann, I.D. (Chief ed.), The Insects of Australia, 2nd edition. CSIRO (Division of Entomology). Melbourne University Press, Carlton. pp. 421–428.

    Caldwell, D.K. & Caldwell, M.C. (1969) The harbor seal, Phoca vitulina concolor, in Florida. Journal of Mammalogy, 50, 379–380.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1378371

    Castro, D.C. & Cicchino, A.C. (1998) Anoplura, figs 1–11. In: Morrone, J.J. & Coscarón, S. (eds), Biodiversidad de artrópodos argentinos—Una perspectiva biotaxonómica. Ediciones Sur, La Plata, pp. 125–139

    Castro, D.C., Romero, M.D. & Dreon, M. (2002) Ultraestructure of Proechinophthirus zumpti (Anoplura, Echinophthiriidae) by scanning electron microscopy. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 97, 813–818.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762002000600011

    Clausen, B. (1978) Diseases and toxochemicals in the common seal in Denmark. Riistatieteellisiä Julkaisuja. Finnish Game Research, 37, 38–39.

    Clay, T. (1940) Anoplura. British Graham Land Expedition, 1934–37, Scientific Reports, 1(5), 295–318, 1 pl.

    Clay, T. (1964) Insects of Campbell Island. Phthiraptera. Pacific Insects Monograph, 7, 230–234.

    Clay, T. & Moreby, C. (1967) Mallophaga (biting lice) and Anoplura (sucking lice). Part II: Keys and locality lists of Mallophaga and Anoplura. Pp. 157–169, 177–196. In Gressitt, J.L. (ed.), Antarctic Research Series, volume 10 Entomology of Antarctica. American Geophysical Union, Washington D.C. xii + 395 pp.

    Clay, T. & Moreby, C. (1970) Mallophaga and Anoplura of subantarctic islands. Pacific Insects Monographs, 23, 216–220.

    Conlogue, G.J., Ogden, J.A. & Foreyt W.J. (1980) Pediculosis and severe heartworm infection in a harbor seal. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Small Animal Clinician, 75, 1184–1187.

    Coulson, S.J. & Refseth, D. (2004) The terrestrial and freshwater invertebrate fauna of Svalbard (and Jan Mayen). Chapter 3. Pp. 57 –122. In: Prestrud, P., Strøm H. & Goldman, H.V. (eds), A catalogue of the terrestrial and marine animals of Svalbard. Norsk Polarinstitutt Skrifter, Tromsø. 201, iv + 137 pp.

    Cummings, B.F. (1916) Note on the thorax in Anoplura and in the genus Nesiotinus of the Mallophaga. Annals and magazine of natural history (Series 18), 17, 171–174.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00222931608693762

    Dailey, M.D. & Brownell, R.L. (1972) A checklist of marine mammal parasites. Chapter 9. Pp. 528–589. In: Ridgway, S.H. (ed.), Mammals of the sea. Biology and Medicine. Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield, Illinois. xiv + 812 pp.

    Dailey, M., Ellin, R. & Parás, A. (2005) First report of parasites from pinnipeds in the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador, with a description of a new species of Philophthalmus (Digenea: Philophthalmidae). Journal of Parasitology, 91, 614–617.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1645/GE-3425

    Dailey, M.D. & Fallace, L.S. (1989) Prevalence of parasites in a wild population of the Pacific harbour seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi) from Gray's Harbor, Washington. Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences, 88, 1–10.

    Dailey, M.D. & Hill, B.L. (1970) A survey of metazoan parasites infecting the California (Zalophus californianus) and Steller (Eumetopias jubatus) sea lion. Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences, 69, 126–132.

    Dalla Torre, K. (1908) Anoplura. In: Wytsman, P. (ed.), Genera Insectorum, 81, 1–22, 1 pl.

    Denny, H. (1842) Monographia anoplurorum Britanniae. London, Henry G. Bohn. 264 pp., 26 pls.

    Dubinin, V.B. (1955) The phenomenon of “parasitophoria” among ectoparasites and its significance for livestock and wild animal raising. Trudy Zoological Institute, Leningrad, 21, 18–35 [in Russian].

    Dunn, J.L. & Wolke, R.E. (1976) Dipetalonema spirocauda infection in the Atlantic harbor seal (Phoca vitulina concolor). Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 12, 531–538.

    Durden, L.A & Adams, N.E. (2005) Primary type specimens of sucking lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera: Anoplura) in the U.S. National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. Zootaxa, 1047, 21–60.

    Durden, L.A. & Musser, G.G. (1994a) The sucking lice (Insecta, Anoplura) of the world: a taxonomic checklist with records of mammalian hosts and geographical distributions. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 218, 1–90.

    Durden, L.A. & Musser, G.G. (1994b) The mammalian hosts of the sucking lice (Anoplura) of the world: A host-parasite list. Bulletin of the Society for Vector Ecology, 19, 130–168.

    Eichler, W. (1941) Zur Klassifikation der Lauskerfe (Phthiraptera Haeckel: Rhynchophthirina, Mallophaga und Anoplura). Archiv für Naturgeschichte. Neue Folge. 10, 345–398.

    Enderlein, G. (1904a) Lepidophthirus nov. gen., eine Laus der Elefantenrobbe von der Kerguelen-Insel. Zoologischer Anzeiger 28, 43–47.

    Enderlein, G. (1904b) Läusestudien. Über die morphologie, klassifikation und systematische stellung der Anopluren nebst bemerkungen zur systematik der insektenordnungen. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 28, 121–147.

    Enderlein, G. (1906) Läusestudien. V. Schuppen als sekundäre Atmungsorgane, sowie über eine neue antarktische Echinophthiriiden-Gattung. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 29, 659–665.

    Enderlein, G. (1909) Monographie der Robbenläuse. Pp. 505–516, pls 55–60. In: Enderlein G. (ed.), Die Insekten des Antarktischen Gebietes. Deutsche Südpolar-Expedition 1901–1903 10, Zoologie, 2, 361–528, 24 pls.

    Essink, K., Dettmann, C., Farke, H., Laursen, K., Lüerßen, G., Marencic, H. & Wiersinga W. (eds.) (2005) Wadden Sea quality status report 2004. Wadden Sea Ecosystem No. 19. Trilateral Monitoring and Assessment Group, Common Wadden Sea Secretariat, Wilhelmshaven. 360 pp.

    Evans, W. (1913) A list of Anoplura obtained in the Forth Area. Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, 19, 93–95.

    Ewing, H.E. (1923) New genera and species of sucking lice. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 13, 146–149.

    Ewing, H.E. (1929) A manual of external parasites. London, Baillière, Tindall & Cox. xvi + 225 pp.

    Ewing, H.E. (1932) The male genital armature in the order Anoplura, or sucking lice. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 25, 657–669.

    Fahrenholz, H. (1917) Anopluren des Zoologischen Museums zu Hamburg. (3. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Anopluren). Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museums, 34, 1–22.

    Fahrenholz, H. (1919) Zur Nomenklatur einiger Anopluren-Arten. II. Jahresbericht des Niedersächsischen zoologischen Vereins zu Hannover, 5–10, 22–27.

    Fahrenholz, H. (1936) Zur Systematik der Anopluren. Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde, 9, 50–56.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02120303

    Fahrenholz, H. (1939) Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Anopluren. IV. Mitteilungen aus dem entomologischen Verein Bremen, 26, 32–47.

    Ferris, G.F. (1916a) A catalogue and host list of the Anoplura. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (4th Series), 6, 129–213.

    Ferris, G.F. (1916b) Anoplura from sea-lions of the Pacific Ocean. Entomological News, 27, 366–370.

    Ferris, G.F. (1919) Anoplura of the Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-18. Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913–18. Insects. Volume 3, 11D. F.A. Acland, Ottawa.

    Ferris, G.F. (1934) Contributions toward a monograph of the sucking lice. Part VII. Stanford University Publications, Biological Sciences, 2, 473–526. Stanford University Press, California.

    Ferris, G.F. (1951) The Sucking Lice. Memoirs of the Pacific Coast Entomological Society 1, x + 320 pp.

    Freund, L. (1928) Anoplura Pinnipediorum (Robbenläuse). In: Grimpe G. & Wagler, E. (eds), Tierwelt der Nord- und Ostsee. Geest und Portig, Leipzig, 4, pp. 1–36.

    Geraci, J.R. (1978) The enigma of marine mammal strandings. Oceanus, 21, 38–47.

    Geraci, J.R., Fortin, J.F., St Aubin, D.J. & Hicks, B.D. (1981) The seal louse, Echinophthirius horridus: an intermediate host of the seal heartworm, Dipetalonema spirocauda (Nematoda). Canadian Journal of Zoology, 59, 1457–1459.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z81-197

    Geraci, J.R. & St Aubin, D.J. (1987) Effects of parasites on marine mammals. International Journal for Parasitology, 17, 407–414.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0020-7519(87)90116-0

    Giebel, C.G.A. (1871) Analytische Uebersicht der Säugethierläuse, Haematopinus und Trichodectes. Zeitschrift für die gesammten Naturwissenschaften, 37, 173–179.

    Giebel, C.G.A. (1874) Insecta epizoa. Die auf Säugetieren und Vögeln schmarotzenden Insecten nach Chr. L. Nitzsch's Nachlass bearbeitet. O. Wiegand, Leipzig. xvi + 308 pp., pls 1–20.

    Goidanich, A. (1956) Echinophthirius horridus Olfers (Anoplura Echinophthiriidae) scoperto sulla foca mediterranea Monachus albiventer Bodd. (Pinnipedia Phocidae Monachinae) nei mare di Sardegna. Atti della Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, 90, 525–532.

    Green, E.D. & Turner, M.L. (2004) Functional micromorphology of the elephant seal louse Lepidophthirus macrorhini. Microscopy Society of Southern Africa - Proceedings, 34, 74.

    Gressitt, J.L. (1964) Insects of Campbell Island. Summary. Pacific Insects Monograph, 7, 531–600.

    Gressitt, J.L. (1970) Subantarctic entomology and biogeography. Pacific Insects Monograph, 23, 295–374.

    Gressitt, J.L. & Weber, N.A. (1959) Bibliographic introduction to Antarctic–Subantarctic Entomology. Pacific Insects, 1, 441–480.

    Grimaldi, D. & Engel, M.S. (2005) Evolution of the insects. Cambridge University Press, New York. xvi + 755 pp.

    Gurlt, E.F. (1857) Verzeichniss der Thiere, auf welchen Schmarotzer - Insekten leben. Archiv für Naturgeschichte, 23, 276–304.

    Gurlt E.F. (1878) Neues Verzeichniss der Thiere, auf welchen Schmarotzer-Insecten leben. Archiv für Naturgeschichte, 44, 167–210.

    Hamilton, J.E. (1939) A second report on the southern sea lion, Otaria byronia (de Blainville). Discovery Reports, 19, 121–164, 8 pls.

    Harrison, L. (1937) Mallophaga and Siphunculata. 2(1), 1–47, pls 1–3, 7 figs. In: Johnston, T.H. (ed.), Scientific reports, Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911–14, series C, Zoology and Botany. Sydney, Government Printer.

    Herms, W.B. (1939) Medical entomology. 3rd edition. The Macmillan Company, New York. xxii + 582 pp.

    Hinton, H.E. (1976) Respiratory adaptations of marine Phthiraptera. Pp. 73–74, fig. 3.14.A. In: Cheng, L. (ed.), Marine Insects. North Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam. xii + 581 pp.

    Hoffmann, V., Nolan, T.J. & Schoelkopf, R. (2004) First report of the giant kidney worm (Dioctophyme renale) in a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina). Journal of Parasitology, 90, 659–660.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1645/GE-198R

    Hopkins, G.H.E. (1946) [1945] Stray notes on Anoplura. 4. The hosts of certain seal-lice. Annals and Magazine of Natural History (Series 11), 12, 566–567.

    Hopkins, G.H.E. (1949) The host-associations of the lice of mammals. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 119, 387–604.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1949.tb00888.x

    Imms, A.D. (1957) A general textbook of entomology. Ninth Edition. (Revised by O.W. Richards & R.G. Davies). Methven & Co. Ltd., London. x + 886 pp.

    International Union for the Conservation of Nature [IUCN] (2012) Mediterranean monk seal, Monachus monachus. In: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/13653/0 [Accessed 11 October 2012].

    Jancke, O. (1932) Mitteilungen über Anopluren. IV–IX. Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde, 4, 522–541.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02119998

    Jancke, O. (1938) Flöhe oder Aphaniptera (Suctoria). Läuse oder Anoplura (Siphunculata). In: Dahl, F. (ed.), Die Tierwelt Deutschlands und der angrenzenden Meeresteile nach ihren Merkmalen und nach ihrer Lebensweise. Volume 35. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena. 78 pp.

    Jellison, W.L. (1952) Anoplura from mammals of the Pribilof Islands. Journal of Parasitology, 38, 274–275.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3274048

    Jellison, W.L. & Milner, K.C. (1958) Salmonellosis (bacillary dysentery) of fur seals. Journal of Wildlife Management, 22, 199–200.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3797329

    Jensen, K. & Palma, R.L. (2005) Insecta (insects). Pp. 226–230, 491–492, fig. 5.32. In: Rohde, K. (ed.), Marine Parasitology. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria. 592 pp.

    Kadulski, S. (2001) Echinophthirius horridus (Olfers, 1816) (Anoplura) rare parasite on seals. Wiadomosci Parazytologiczne, 47, 269–271.

    Kaisila, J. (1973) 16. The Anoplura and Siphonaptera of Spitsbergen. Annales Entomologici Fennici, 39(2), 63–66.

    Kellogg, V.L. & Ferris, G.F. (1915) The Anoplura and Mallophaga of North American mammals. Leland Stanford Junior University Publications University Series, Stanford University Press, California. 74 pp., 8 pls.

    Keyes, M.C. (1965) Pathology of the northern fur seal. Journal of the American Veterinary and Medical Association, 147, 1090–1095.

    Kim, K.C. (1971) The sucking lice (Anoplura: Echinophthiriidae) of the northern fur seal; descriptions and morphological adaptation. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 64, 280–292.

    Kim, K.C. (1972) Louse populations of the northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus). The American Journal of Veterinary Research, 33, 2027–2036.

    Kim, K.C. (1975) Ecology and morphological adaptation of the sucking lice (Anoplura, Echinophthiriidae) on the northern fur seal. Rapport et Procès verbaux des Réunions du conseil Permanent International pour l´Exploration de la Mer, 169, 504–515.

    Kim, K.C. (1979) Life stages and population of Proechinophthirus zumpti (Anoplura: Echinophthiriidae), from the Cape fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus). Journal of Medical Entomology, 16, 497–501.

    Kim, K.C. (1982a) Anoplura. Pp. 406–409. In: Parker, S.P. (ed.) Synopsis and classification of living organisms. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. 1232 pp.

    Kim, K.C. (1982b) Host specificity and phylogeny of Anoplura. Mémoires du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. Nouvelle Série. A, Zoologie, 123, 123–127.

    Kim, K.C. (ed.) (1985) Coevolution of parasitic arthropods and mammals. John Wiley & Sons, New York. xiv + 800 pp.

    Kim, K.C. (1987) Order Anoplura. figs 23.1–23.77. In: Stehr, F.W. (ed.), Immature insects. Kendall / Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa, pp. 224 –245,

    Kim, K.C. (1988) Evolutionary parallelism in Anoplura and eutherian mammals. Chapter 7. Pp. 91–114, 8 figs. In: Service, M.W. (ed.), Biosystematics of haematophagous insects. Systematics Association, Clarendon Press, Oxford. xii + 363 pp.

    Kim, K.C., Chu, R.C. & Barron, G.P. (1974) Mercury in tissues and lice of northern fur seals. Bulletin Environmental Contamination & Toxicology, 11, 281–284.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01685109

    Kim, K.C. & Emerson, K.C. (1974) Latagophthirus rauschi, new genus and new species (Anoplura: Echinophthiriidae) from the river otter (Carnivora: Mustelidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 11, 442–446.

    Kim, K.C. & Ludwig, H.W. (1978a) The family classification of Anoplura. Systematic Entomology, 3, 249–284.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.1978.tb00120.x

    Kim, K.C. & Ludwig, H.W. (1978b) Phylogenetic relationships of parasitic Psocodea and taxonomic position of the Anoplura. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 71, 910–922.

    Kim, K.C., Pratt, H.D. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1986) The sucking lice of North America—An illustrated manual for identification. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park & London. xii + 241 pp.

    Kim, K.C., Repenning, C.A. & Morejohn, G.V. (1975) Specific antiquity of the sucking lice and evolution of otariid seals. Rapport et Procès verbaux des Réunions du conseil permanent International pour l’Exploration de la Mer, 169, 544–549.

    King, C.M. (ed.) (2005) The handbook of New Zealand mammals. Oxford University Press, South Melbourne. i–xx + 610 pp.

    King, J.E. (1964). List of parasites. Pp 134–140. In: King, J.E., Seals of the world. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), London. v + 154 pp.

    King, J.E. (1983). Parasites. Chapter 15. Pp 201–204. In: King, J.E., Seals of the world. Second Edition. British Museum (Natural History), London and Oxford University Press, Oxford. 240 pp.

    Kurochkin, Y.V. (1975) Parasites of the Caspian seal Pusa caspica. Rapport et Procès verbaux des Réunions du conseil Permanent International pour l´Exploration de la Mer, 169, 363–365.

    Kurochkin, Y.V. & Badamshin, B.I. (1968) Finding of the seal lice Echinophthirius horridus Olfers, 1816 on the Caspian seal and the problem of origin of its parasite fauna. Trudy Astrakhanskogo Zapovednika, 11, 199–208 [in Russian].

    Ledger, J.A. (1980) The arthropod parasites of vertebrates in Africa south of the Sahara. IV. Phthiraptera (Insecta). Publications of the South African Institute for Medical Research, 56, vi + 327 pp.

    Lehane, M.J. (2005) The biology of blood-sucking in insects. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, New York. xiv + 321 pp.

    Leidenberger, S., Harding, K. & Härkönen, T. (2007) Phocid seals, seal lice and heartworms: a terrestrial host-parasite system conveyed to the marine environment. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 77, 235–253.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/dao01823

    Leonardi, M.S., Crespo, E.A., Raga, J.A. & Fernández, M. (2009) Redescription of Antarctophthirus microchir (Anoplura: Echinophthiriidae) from South American sea lion, Otaria flavescens, from Patagonia, Argentina. Journal of Parasitology, 95, 1086–1092.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1645/GE-2050.1

    Leonardi, M.S., Crespo, E.A., Raga, J.A. & Aznar, F. (2011) Insectos oceánicos: los piojos buceadores. Ciencia Hoy, 21, 58–64.

    Leonardi, M.S., Crespo, E.A., Raga, J.A. & Fernández, M. (2012a) Scanning electron microscopy of Antarctophthirus microchir (Phthiraptera: Anoplura: Echinophthiriidae): Studying morphological adaptations to aquatic life. Micron, 43, 929–936.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2012.03.009

    Leonardi, M.S., Crespo, E.A., Vales, D.G., Feijoo, M., Raga, J.A. & Aznar, F.J. (2012b) Life begins when the sea lion is ashore: habitat use by a louse of a diving mammal host. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 102, 444–452.

    Light, J.E., Smith, V.S., Allen, J.M., Durden, L.A. & Reed, D.L. (2010) Evolutionary history of mammalian sucking lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura). BMC Evolutionary Biology, 10, 292–306.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-10-292

    Lucas, H. (1834) Pediculus phocae. In: Guérin, F.-E. Magasin de Zoologie Journal, 4, 120–122.

    Ludwig, H.W. (1968) Zahl, Vorkommen und Verbreitung der Anoplura. Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde, 31, 254–265.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00259705

    Ludwig, H.W. (1982) Host specificity in Anoplura and coevolution of Anoplura and Mammalia. Mémoires du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. Nouvelle Série. A, Zoologie 123, 145–152.

    Lunneryd, S.G. (1992) Dipetalonema spirocauda (Leidy) (Nematoda) and Corynosoma strumosum (Rudolphi) (Acanthocephala) infection in harbor seal from the Kattegat-Skagerrak and the Baltic. Sarsia, 76(4), 267–271.

    Luther, A. (1909) Über Echinophthirius phocae (Luc.) als parasit der SaimaRobbe (Phoca foetida v. saimensis Nordqv.). Meddelanden af Societas pro fauna et flora fennica, 36, 17–19.

    Lyons, E.T., Keyes, M.C. & Conlogue, J. (1978) Activities of dichlorvos or disophenol against the hookworm (Uncinaria lucasi) and sucking lice of northern fur seal pups (Callorhinus ursinus) on St. Paul Island, Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 14, 455–464.

    Lyons, E.T., Kim, K.C. & Keyes, M.C. (1980) Variable activity of disophenol against hookworms and lice of northern fur seal pups on St. Paul Island, Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 16, 53–57.

    Maltbaek, J. (1937) Lice from foreign mammals in Danish collections. Entomologiske Meddelelser, 20, 20–21.

    Margolis, L. (1954) List of the parasites recorded from sea mammals caught off the west coast of North America. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 11, 267–283.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f54-017

    Margolis, L. (1956) Parasitic helminths and arthropods from Pinnipedia of the Canadian Pacific Coast. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 13, 489–505.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f56-030

    Margolis, L. & Dailey, M.D. (1972) Revised annotated list of parasites from sea mammals caught off the west coast of North America. Noaa Technical Report, 647, 1–23.

    Marlow, B.J. (1975) The comparative behaviour of the Australasian sea lions Neophoca cinerea and Phocarctos hookeri (Pinnipedia: Otariidae). Mammalia, 39, 159–230.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/mamm.1975.39.2.159

    Marshall, A.G. (1981) The ecology of ectoparasitic insects. Academic Press, London. xvi + 459 pp.

    McAtee, W.L. (1923) II. Insects, arachnids, and chilopods. Pp. 129–244, 8 pls. In: North American Fauna 46. A biological survey of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. iv + 255 pp.

    McClelland, G. (1980) Phocanema decipiens: pathology in seals. Experimental Parasitology, 49, 405–419.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4894(80)90075-2

    McIntosh, R. & Murray, M.D. (2007) Louse infestations of the Australian sea lion Neophoca cinerea. Australian Mammalogy, 29, 103–106.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/AM07014

    Mehl, R. (1970) Records of ectoparasitic insects and mites on birds and mammals in Norway. Norsk Entomologisk Tidsskrift, 17, 109–113.

    Mehlhorn, B., Mehlhorn, H., & Plötz, J. (2002) Light and scanning electron microscopical study on Antarctophthirus ogmorhini lice from the Antarctic seal Leptonychotes weddellii. Parasitology Research, 88, 651–660.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-002-0630-7

    Meinert, F. (1897) Neuroptera, Pseudoneuroptera, Thysanopoda [sic], Mallophaga, Collembola, Suctoria, Siphunculata Groenlandica. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den Naturhistoriske Forening Kjøbenhaven, 1896, 154–177.

    Miller, F.H. (1971) Scanning electron microscopy of Echinophthirius horridus (von Olfers), Antarctophthirus callorhini (Osborn), and Proechinophthirius fluctus (Ferris) with emphasis on the antennal structures (Anoplura: Echinophthiriidae). Journal of Parasitology, 57, 668–674.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3277937

    Mjöberg, E. (1910) Studien über mallophagen und anopluren. Arkiv för Zoologi, 6, 1–296.

    Morgades, D., Katz, H., Castro, O., Capellino, D., Casas, L., Benítez, G., Venzal, J.M. & Moraña, A. (2006) Fauna parasitaria del lobo fino Arctocephalus australis y del león marino Otaria flavescens (Mammalia, Otariidae) en la costa uruguaya. Pp. 89–96, figs 1–3. In: Menafra, R., Rodríguez-Gallego, L., Scarabino, F. & Conde, D. (eds), Bases para la conservación y manejo de la costa uruguaya. Vida Silvestre, Uruguay, Montevideo. xiv + 668 pp.

    Murray, M.D. (1958) Ecology of the louse Lepidophthirus macrorhini Enderlein 1904 on the elephant seal Mirounga leonina (L.). Nature, 182, 404–405.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/182404b0

    Murray, M.D. (1964) Ecology of the ectoparasites of seals and penguins. Pp. 241–245. In: Carrick, R., Holdgate, M.W. & Prevost, J. (eds), Biologie Antarctique/Antarctic Biology. Proceedings of 1st SCAR/IUBS Symposium on Antarctic Biology, Paris, 2–8 September 1962. Hermann, Paris. 651 pp.

    Murray, M.D. (1967) Ectoparasites of Antarctic seals and birds. Pp. 185–191. In: Nagata, T. (ed.), Jare Scientific Reports. Special Issue 1. Proceedings of the Symposium on Pacific-Antarctic Sciences. [Papers presented at the eleventh Pacific Science Congress, held at the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, August 23–27, 1966]. Department of Polar Research, National Science Museum, Tokyo. ii + 275 pp.

    Murray, M.D. (1976) Insect parasites of marine birds and mammals. Chapter 4: 79–96, 8 figs. In: Cheng, L. (ed.), Marine Insects. North Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam. xii + 581 pp.

    Murray, M.D. & Nicholls, D.G. (1965) Studies on the ectoparasites of seals and penguins. I. The ecology of the louse Lepidophthirus macrorhini Enderlein on the southern elephant seal, Mirounga leonina (L.). Australian Journal of Zoology, 13, 437–454, 4 pls.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ZO9650437

    Murray, M.D., Smith, M.S.R. & Soucek, Z. (1965) Studies on the ectoparasites of seals and penguins II. The ecology of the louse Antarctophthirus ogmorhini Enderlein on the Weddell seal, Leptonychotes weddelli Lesson. Australian Journal of Zoology, 13, 761–771, 2 pls.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ZO9650761

    Nakagawa, H. (1959) A note on the lice from Phoca hispedia [sic] ochotensis collected in the Sea of Japan (Phthiraptera, Anoplura). Miscellaneous Reports of the Research Institute for Natural Resources (Tokyo), 51(2), 44–46 [in Japanese with English summary].

    Neumann, L.G. (1907) Pédiculinés, Mallophages, Ixodídes. Pp. 13–17. In: Charcot, J. Expédition Antarctique Française (1903–1905). Sciences naturelles: documents scientifiques. Arthropodes. Mason et Cie, Paris. Volume 9, 100 pp.

    Neumann, L.G. (1909) Notes sur les pédiculidés. Archives de Parasitologie, 13, 497–537.

    Olfers, I.F.J.M. von (1816). De vegetativis et animatis corporibus in corporibus animatis reperiundis commentarius. Taberna Libraria Maureriana, Berolini. i + vi, 113 pp., 1pl.

    Osborn, H. (1896) Insects affecting domestic animals: an account of the species of importance in North America, with mention of related forms occurring on other animals. Bulletin U.S. Department of Agriculture Division Entomology (new series) 5, 1–302, 2 pls.

    Osborn, H. (1899) IX. Acarina. Pp. 553–554. In: Jordan, D.S. (ed.), The fur seals and fur-seal Islands of the North Pacific Ocean. Part 3. Special papers relating to the fur seal and to the natural history of the Pribilof Islands. United States Government Printing Office,Washington, D.C. xii + 629 pp.

    Pajot, F.-X. (2000) Les poux (Insecta, Anoplura) de la région Afrotropicale. Editions de l'IRD: Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Paris. Collection Faune et Flore tropicales, 37, 1–294.

    Palma, R.L. (2010) Order Phthiraptera: Lice. Pp. 294–296, 407–409. In Gordon, D.P. (ed.) New Zealand Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume Two. Kingdom Animalia—Chaetognatha, Ecdysozoa, Ichnofossils. Canterbury University Press, Christchurch. 528 pp.

    Paulian, P. (1953) Pinnipèdes, cétacés, oiseaux des Iles Kerguelen et Amsterdam. Mission Kerguelen 1951. Mémoires de l'Institut Scientifique de Madagascar, Série A, 8, 111–234.

    Piaget, E. (1880) Les Pédiculines. Essai Monographique. E.J. Brill, Leide. xxxix + 714 pp., pls 1–56.

    Pilgrim, R.L.C. (1970) Knowledge of New Zealand Mecoptera, Mallophaga, Anoplura and Siphonaptera. New Zealand entomologist, 4, 72–79.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00779962.1970.9722925

    Pilgrim, R.L.C. (1974) Lice and fleas (1). New Zealand’s Nature Heritage, 37, 1030–1036.

    Price, M.A. & Graham, O.H. (1997) Chewing and sucking lice as parasites of mammals and birds. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Technical Bulletin, 1849, vi + 257 pp., 2 appendices.

    Raga, J.A. (1997) Parasitology of marine mammals. Chapter 8. Pp. 67–90. In: Jauniaux,T., Bouquegneau, J.-M. & Coignoul F. (eds), Marine mammals, seabirds and pollution of marine systems. Presse de la Faculté de Médicine Véterinaire de l'Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium. vi + 181 pp.

    Raga, J.A., Aznar, F.J., Balbuena, J.A. & Fernández, M. (2002) Parasites. Pp.867–876. In: Perrin, W.F., Würsig, B. & Thewissen, J.G.M. (eds), Encyclopedia of marine mammals. Academic Press, San Diego, California. xxxviii + 1414 pp., 16 pls.

    Reeves, R.R., Stewart, B.S., Clapman, P.J., Powell, J.A. & Folkens, P.A. (2002) National Audubon Society guide to marine mammals of the world. Chanticleer Press Inc., Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 528 pp.

    Reijnders, P.J.H., Clausen, B., van Haaften, J.L. & van der Kamp, J. (1981) Diseases and parasites in harbour seals of the Wadden Sea. Chapter 7. Pp. 33–37. In: Reijnders, P.J.H. & Wolff (eds), Marine mammals of the Wadden Sea. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam. 64 pp.

    Ronald, K., Johnson, E., Foster, M. & Vander Pol, D. (1970) The harp seal, Pagophilus groenlandicus (Erxleben, 1777). I. Methods of handling, molt, and diseases in captivity. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 48(5), 1035–1040, 3 pls.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z70-182

    Rothschild, N.C. (1902) 9. Insecta: Hemiptera parasitica: Pediculidae. P. 224. In: Sharpe, R.B., Barrett-Hamilton, G.E.H., Wilson, E.A., Hanson, N. & Boulenger, G.A. (eds), Report on the collections of natural history made in the Antarctic Regions during the voyage of the “Southern Cross”. London, Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). ix + 344 pp., 53 pls.

    Rounsevell, D.E. & Horne, P.A. (1986) Terrestrial, parasitic and introduced invertebrates of the Vestfold. Hills. Pp. 309–331. In: Pickard, J. (ed.), Antarctic oasis - Terrestrial environments and history of the Vestfold Hills. Sydney, Academic Press. xii + 367 pp.

    Scherf, H. (1963) Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis zweier Pinnipedierläuse (Antarctophthirus trichechi Boheman und Echinophthirius horridus Olfers). Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde, 23, 16–44.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00260335

    Schumacher, U., Horny, H.-P., Heidemann, G., Schultz, W. & Welsch, U. (1990) Histopathological findings in harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) found dead on the German North Sea coast. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 102, 299–309.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9975(08)80019-9

    Schumann, W. (1989) Seehunde im Wattenmeer. 2nd edition. Landbuch-Verlag, Hannover. 111 pp.

    Séguy, E. (1944) Insectes Ectoparasites (Mallophages, Anoploures, Siphonaptères). Faune de France 43, 1–684.

    Séguy, E. (1951) Ordre des anoploures ou poux (Anoplura Lucas, 1840). Pp. 1365–1384. In: Grassé, P.-P. (ed.), Traité de Zoologie - Anatomie, systématique, biologie. Tome X. Insectes supérieurs et hémiptéroïdes. (Fascicule II). Masson et Cie Éditeurs, Paris. 977 pp.

    Skírnisson, K. & Ólafsson, E. (1990) Sníkjudýr í selum við Island með umfjöllun um hjartaorminn Dipetalonema spirocauda og selalúsina Echinopthirius horridus [Parasites of seals in Icelandic waters, with special reference to the heartworm Dipetalonema spirocauda and the sucking louse Echinopthirius horridus]. Náttúrufraeðingurinn, 60, 93–102.

    Spencer, G.J. (1966) Anoplura from British Columbia and some adjacent areas. Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia, 63, 23–30.

    Steel, W.O. (1964) Order XVIII: Siphunculata. Pp. 35. In: Kloet, G.S. & Hincks, W.D. A Check list of British insects. Part 1: Small orders and Hemiptera. Second edition (Revised). Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects, 11, xvi + 119 pp.

    Swiestra, D., Jansen, J. Jr, & van den Broek, E. (1959) Parasites of animals in the Netherlands. Tijdschrift voor Diergeneeskunde, 84, 892–900.

    Taylor, A.E.R., Brown, D.H., Heyneman, D. & McIntyre, R.W. (1961) Biology of filarioid nematode Dipetalonema spirocauda (Leidy, 1858) from the heart of captive harbor seals and sea lions, together with pathology of the hosts. Journal of Parasitology, 47, 971–976.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3275035

    Thompson, G.B. (1938) The Siphunculata or sucking-lice recorded from the Pacific Islands. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 74, 90–94.

    Thompson, G.B. (1939) A check-list and host-list of the ectoparasites recorded from British birds and mammals. Part I. Mammals (excluding bats). Transactions of the Society for British Entomology, 6, 1–22.

    Thompson, G.B. & Plomley, N.J.B. (1938) A list of the insect ectoparasites recorded from Australian birds and mammals. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, 63, 105–127.

    Thompson, P.M., Corpe, H.M. & Reid, R.J. (1998) Prevalence and intensity of the ectoparasite Echinophthirius horridus on harbour seals (Phoca vitulina): effects of host age and inter-annual variability in host food availability. Parasitology, 117, 393–403.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0031182098003072

    Thorsteinson, F.V & Lensink, C.J. (1962) Biological observations of Steller sea lions taken during an experimental harvest. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 26, 353–359.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3798011

    Tillyard, R.J. (1926) The Insects of Australia and New Zealand. Angus & Robertson, Ltd, Sydney. xvi + 560 pp.

    Tijskens, J. (1969) Le pou parasitant le phoque du lac Baikal (Echinophthirius horridus baicalensis Ass). Zoo Anvers, 34, 132–134.

    Trouessart, E. & Neumann, G. (1888) Le pou de l’otarie (Echinophthirius microchir, n. sp.). Le Naturaliste, 10, 80–81.

    van den Broek, E. (1963). Mededelingen betreffende parasitologisch onderzoek bij de gewone zeehond, Phoca vitulina L. Lutra - Orgaan van de Vereniging voor Zoogdierkunde en Zoogdierbescherming, 5, 22–30.

    van den Broek, E. (1977) De luizen (Anoplura en Mallophaga) van zoogdieren in Nederland. Wetenschappelijke Mededelingen Koninklijke Nederlandse Natuurhistorische Vereniging, 121, 1–32.

    van den Broek, E. & Jansen, J. Jr (1964) Parasites of animals in the Netherlands. Supplement II. Parasites of wild mammals. Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, 34, 103–105.

    van den Broek, E. & Wensvoort, P. (1959) On parasites of seals from the Dutch coastal waters and their pathogenity [sic]. Säugetierkundliche Mitteilungen, 7, 58–62.

    Vauk, von G. (1973) Beobachtungen am Seehund (Phoca vitulina L.) auf Helgoland. Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft, 19, 117–121.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01901917

    Waterston, J. (1913) Echinophthirius phocae, Lucas, in N. Mavine, Shetland. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 49, 113.

    Webb, J.E. (1946) Spiracle structure as a guide to the phylogenetic relationships of the Anoplura (biting and sucking lice), with notes on the affinities of the mammalian hosts. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 116, 49–119.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1946.tb00109.x

    Webb, J.E. (1949) The evolution and host-relationships of the sucking lice of the Ferungulata. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 119, 133–188.
    http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1949.tb00873.x

    Weber, N.A. (1950) A survey of the insects and related arthropods of Arctic Alaska. Part I. Transactions of the American Entomological Society, 76, 147–206.

    Werneck, F.L. (1955) Novo anopluro de leão marinho. Revista Brasileira de Biología, 15, 419–421.

    Wipper, E. (1974) Die ökologischen und pathologischen Probleme beim europäischen Seehund (Phoca vitulina Linné, 1758) an der niedersächsischen Nordseeküste. PhD Thesis, Medizinischen Tierklinik der Tierärztlichen Fakultät der Universität München, Germany. 211 pp.

    Wolcott, G.N. (1971) Clase VI. Los insectos (Insecta). Pp. 567–898. In: Cendrero, L. (ed.), Zoología Hispanoamericana. Invertebrados. Editorial Porrúa, S.A., México, D.F. xxiv + 1151 pp.

    Wülker, G. (1930) Über Nematoden aus Nordseetieren. I. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 87, 293–302.

    Zarubina, V.N. (1986) Order Anoplura—lice. Pp. 370–380, figs 196–197. In: Ler, P.A. (ed.), A guide to identifying insects of the Soviet Far East. Volume 1. Apterygota, Palaeoptera, with incomplete metamorphosis. Leningrad, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, “Nauka” Publishers. 451 pp. [in Russian].