Abstract
Softwoods (SW, spruce and fir) and hardwoods (HW, ash and beech) were thermally modified by the thermo-vacuum (Termovuoto) process for 3–4 h in the temperature range 160–220°C (TMW160–220°C) and their fungal durability were examined in soil-block tests with two brown rot (BR, Postia placenta, Gloeophyllum trabeum) and two white rot (WR, Pycnoporus sanguineus, Phlebia radiata) fungi. SW-TMW160–220°C were exposed to P. placenta and P. sanguineus and HW-TMW190–220°C to all fungal species. Considerable improvement (durability class 1–3) in decay resistance was only achieved for SW- and HW-TMW220°C. Thermal modification (TM) below 200°C influenced decay resistance negatively in case of some fungal species applied for both SW and HW. Judged by the durability class, decay resistance was higher in HW- than in SW-TMW at high TM temperature. Behavior of TM differed significantly between ash (ring-porous HW) and beech (diffuse-porous HW). A comparison between results of soil- and agar-block tests on Termovouoto wood demonstrated that the influence of testing method in terms of assignment to durability classes is not significant.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge funding provided by Formas projects 2008-1399, 2009-582 and 2011-416 and the Eco-Innovation initiative-EU project TV4NEWOOD Eco/12/333079.
References
Allegretti, O., Brunetti, M., Cuccui, I., Ferrari, S., Nocetti, M., Terziev, N. (2012) Thermo-vacuum modification of spruce (Picea abies Karst.) and fir (Abies alba Mill.) wood. BioResources 7:3656–3669.10.15376/biores.7.3.3656-3669Search in Google Scholar
Arantes, V., Goodell, B. (2014) Current understanding of brown-rot fungal biodegradation mechanisms: a review. In: Deterioration and Protection of Sustainable Biomaterials. Eds. Schultz, T.P., Goodell, B., Nicholas, D.D. ACS Symposium Series, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1–21.10.1021/bk-2014-1158.ch001Search in Google Scholar
Archer, K., Nicholas, D.D., Schultz, T.P. (1995) Screening of wood preservatives: comparison of the soil-block, agar-block, and agar-plate tests. Forest Prod. J. 45:86–89.Search in Google Scholar
AWPA Technical Subcommittee P6. AWPA E10-08. Standard Method of Testing Wood Preservatives by Laboratory Soil-block Culture. American Wood Preservers Association, Birmingham, 2008.Search in Google Scholar
Boonstra, M., Van Acker, J., Kegel, E., Stevens, M. (2007) Optimisation of a two-stage heat treatment process: durability aspects. Wood Sci. Technol. 41:31–57.10.1007/s00226-006-0087-4Search in Google Scholar
Calonego, F.W., Severo, E.T.D., Furtado, E.L. (2010) Decay resistance of thermally-modified Eucalyptus grandis wood at 140°C, 160°C, 180°C, 200°C and 220. Bioresour. Technol. 101:9391–9394.10.1016/j.biortech.2010.06.119Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Chaouch, M., Pétrissans, M., Pétrissans, A., Gérardin, P. (2010) Use of wood elemental composition to predict heat treatment intensity and decay resistance of different softwood and hardwood species. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 95:2255–2259.10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2010.09.010Search in Google Scholar
Daniel, G. (2014) Fungal and bacterial biodegradation: white rots, brown rots, soft rots, and bacteria. In: Deterioration and Protection of Sustainable Biomaterials. Eds. Schultz, T.P., Goodell, B., Nicholas, D.D. ACS Symposium Series, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. pp. 23–58.10.1021/bk-2014-1158.ch002Search in Google Scholar
Dubey, M.K., Pang, S., Walker, J. (2012) Changes in chemistry, color, dimensional stability and fungal resistace of Pinus radiata D. Don wood with oil heat-treatment. Holzforschung 66:49–57.10.1515/HF.2011.117Search in Google Scholar
Esteves, B., Pereira, H. (2008) Wood modification by heat treatment: a review. BioResources 4:370–404.10.15376/biores.4.1.EstevesSearch in Google Scholar
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). (1994) EN 350-1. Durability of Wood and Wood-based Products – Natural Durability of Solid Wood – Part 1: Guide to the Principles of Testing and Classification of the Natural Durability of Wood. CEN, Brussels.Search in Google Scholar
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). (1994) EN 350-2. Durability of Wood and Wood-based Products – Natural Durability of Solid Wood – Part 2: Guide to Natural Durability and Treatability of Selceted Wood Species of Importance in Europe. CEN, Brussels.Search in Google Scholar
Ferrari, S., Cuccui, I., Allegretti, O. (2013) Thermo-vacuum modification of some European softwood and hardwood species treated at different conditions. BioResources 8:1100–1109.10.15376/biores.8.1.1100-1109Search in Google Scholar
Gao, J., Kim, J.S., Terziev, N., Allegretti, O., Daniel, G. (2014) Chemical and ultrastructural changes in compound middle lamella (CML) regions of softwoods thermally modified by the Termovuoto process. Holzforschung 68:849–859.10.1515/hf-2013-0221Search in Google Scholar
Homan, W.J., Jorissen, A.J. (2004) Wood modification developments. Heron 49:360–369.Search in Google Scholar
Kamdem, D., Pizzi, A., Jermannaud, A. (2002) Durability of heat-treated wood. Holz Roh-Werkst. 60:1–6.10.1007/s00107-001-0261-1Search in Google Scholar
Kim, G., Yun, K., Kim, J. (1998) Effect of heat treatment on the decay resistance and the bending properties of radiata pine sapwood. Mater. Organismen 32:101–108.Search in Google Scholar
Kim, J.S., Gao, J., Terziev, N., Cuccui, I., Daniel, G. (2015a) Chemical and ultrastructural changes of ash wood thermally modified using the thermo-vacuum process: I. Histo/cytochemical studies on changes in the structure and lignin chemistry. Holzforschung 69:603–613.10.1515/hf-2014-0148Search in Google Scholar
Kim, J.S., Gao, J., Terziev, N., Allegretti, O., Daniel, G. (2015b) Chemical and ultrastructural changes of ash wood thermally modified (TMW) using the thermo-vacuum process: II. Immunocytochemical study of the distribution of noncellulosic polysaccharides. Holzforschung 69:615–625.10.1515/hf-2014-0149Search in Google Scholar
Mazela, B., Zakrzewski, R., Grześkowiak, W., Cofta, G., Bartkowiak, M. (2004) Resistance of thermally modified wood to basidiomycetes. EJPAU 7.Search in Google Scholar
Monteiro, M., Brazolin, S., Catanozi, G. Comparison between Agar-block and Soil-block Methods for Wood-destroying Basidiomycetes. IRG/WP/2401-92. The International Research Group on Wood Preservation, Harrogate, 1992.Search in Google Scholar
Rapp, A.O. (2001) Review on heat treatments of wood. COST Action E22, BFH, Hamburg.Search in Google Scholar
Ringman, R., Pilgård, A., Brischke, C., Richter, K. (2014) Mode of action of brown rot decay resistance in modified wood: a review. Holzforschung 68:239–246.10.1515/hf-2013-0057Search in Google Scholar
Rowell, R.M., Ibach, R.E., McSweeny, J., Nilsson, T. (2009) Understanding decay resistance, dimensional stability and strength changes in heat-treated and acetylated wood. Wood Mater. Sci. Eng. 4:14–22.10.1080/17480270903261339Search in Google Scholar
Schwarze, F.W., Spycher, M. (2005) Resistance of thermo-hygro-mechanically densified wood to colonisation and degradation by brown-rot fungi. Holzforschung 59:358–363.10.1515/HF.2005.059Search in Google Scholar
Sivonen, H., Nuopponen, M., Maunu, S.L., Sundholm, F., Vuorinen, T. (2003) Carbon-thirteen cross-polarization magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance and Fourier transform infrared studies of thermally modified wood exposed to brown and soft rot fungi. Appl. Spectrosc. 57:266–273.10.1366/000370203321558164Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Šušteršic, Ž., Mohareb, A., Chaouch, M., Pétrissans, M., Petrič, M., Gérardin, P. (2010) Prediction of the decay resistance of heat treated wood on the basis of its elemental composition. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 95:94–97.10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2009.10.013Search in Google Scholar
Terziev, N. Test Report (nr. 2014-1-1-113/84): Determination of Durability of Thermally Modified Wood Against Wood Destroying Basidiomycetes. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, 2014.Search in Google Scholar
Tjeerdsma, B.F., Stevens, M., Militz, H. Durability Aspects of (hydro) Thermal Treated Wood. IRG/WP/00-40160. The International Research Group on Wood Preservation, Hawaii, 2000.Search in Google Scholar
Unsal, O., Kartal, S.N., Candan, Z., Arango, R.A., Clausen, C.A., Green, F. (2009) Decay and termite resistance, water absorption and swelling of thermally compressed wood panels. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 63:548–552.10.1016/j.ibiod.2009.02.001Search in Google Scholar
Welzbacher, C., Rapp, A. Comparison of Thermally Modified Wood Originating from Four Industrial Scale Processes-Durability. IRG/WP/02-40229. The International Research Group on Wood Preservation, Wales, 2002.Search in Google Scholar
Windeisen, E., Wegener, G. (2009) Chemical characterization and comparison of thermally treated beech and ash wood. Mater. Sci. Forum. 599:143–158.10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.599.143Search in Google Scholar
Windeisen, E., Strobel, C., Wegener, G. (2007) Chemical changes during the production of thermo-treated beech wood. Wood Sci. Technol. 41:523–536.10.1007/s00226-007-0146-5Search in Google Scholar
Windeisen, E., Bächle, H., Zimmer, B., Wegener, G. (2009) Relations between chemical changes and mechanical properties of thermally treated wood. Holzforschung 63:773–778.10.1515/HF.2009.084Search in Google Scholar
Xie, Y.J., Liu, Y.X., Sun, Y.X. (2002) Heat-treated wood and its development in Europe. J. For. Res. 13:224–230.10.1007/BF02871703Search in Google Scholar
©2016 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston