Abstract
The use of metallic materials for implantable medical devices has prompted numerous studies aimed at characterizing the corrosion susceptibility of these materials and understanding their electrochemical behavior in simulated and actual physiological liquids. This review focuses on the forms of corrosion that are of principal interest for Ti and its alloys in vivo: general corrosion, pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, galvanic corrosion, and fretting corrosion. It also addresses environmentally assisted cracking in the form of hydrogen embrittlement. Of particular interest is the susceptibility of Ti and its alloys to the different forms of corrosion with regard to both solution chemistry, especially the effect of organic species, and surface characteristics such as oxide composition, surface inclusions, and wear/fretting.
About the author
Bruce G. Pound is a senior managing scientist in the Materials and Corrosion Engineering Group at Exponent. He received his BSc and MSc in Chemistry and his PhD in Electrochemistry from Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Before joining Exponent in 1998, he was director of the Electrochemistry Department at SRI International, formerly known as the Stanford Research Institute, where he managed a range of research projects involving corrosion. Over recent years, his research has focused on biomedical corrosion, particularly with regard to passivation and localized corrosion. Dr. Pound has published over 60 journal papers as well as chapters in Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry and the Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry.
References
Agins HJ, Alcock NW, Bansal M, Salvati EA, Wilson PD Jr, Pellicci PM, Bullough PG. Metallic wear in failed titanium-alloy total hip replacements. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1988; 70: 347–356.Search in Google Scholar
Arenas MA, Tate TJ, Conde A, De Damborenea J. Corrosion behavior of nitrogen implanted titanium in simulated body fluid. Br Corros J 2000; 35: 1–5.Search in Google Scholar
Asaoka T. Effect of hydrogen on the shape memory properties of Ni-Ti-Cu. In: Pelton AR, Hodgson D, Duerig T, editors. SMST-94. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 1994: 79–84.Search in Google Scholar
ASTM Standard F2063-05. Standard specification for wrought nickel-titanium shape memory alloys for medical devices and surgical implants. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2005.Search in Google Scholar
ASTM Standard F2129-08. Standard test method for conducting cyclic potentiodynamic polarization measurements to determine the corrosion susceptibility of small implant devices. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2008.Search in Google Scholar
ASTM Standard F746-04. Standard test method for pitting and crevice corrosion of metallic surgical implant materials. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2004.Search in Google Scholar
Azevedo CRF, Hippert E Jr. Failure analysis of surgical implants in Brazil. Eng Fail Anal 2002; 9: 621–633.Search in Google Scholar
Bai Z, Gilbert JL. Corrosion performance of stainless steels, cobalt, and titanium alloys in biomedical applications. In: Cramer SD, Covino BS Jr, editors. ASM handbook, vol 13C. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2006: 837–852.Search in Google Scholar
Bai Z, Rotermund HH. The intrinsically high pitting corrosion resistance of mechanically polished nitinol in simulated physiological solutions. J Biomed Mater Res Part B 2011; 99B: 1–13.Search in Google Scholar
Barison S, Cattarin S, Daolio S, Musiani M, Tuissi A. Characterization of surface oxidation of nickel-titanium alloy by ion-beam and electrochemical techniques. Electrochim Acta 2004; 50: 11–18.Search in Google Scholar
Barrett RD, Bishara SE, Quinn JK. Biodegradation of orthodontic appliances. Part I. Biodegradation of nickel and chromium in vitro. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1993; 103: 8–14.Search in Google Scholar
Black J, Sherk H, Bonini H, Rostoker WR, Schajowicz F, Galante JO. Metallosis associated with a stable titanium-alloy femoral component in total hip replacement. J Bone Joint Surg 1990; 72A: 126–130.Search in Google Scholar
Brown SA, Merritt K. Electrochemical corrosion in saline and serum. J Biomed Mater Res 1980; 14: 173–175.Search in Google Scholar
Brown SA, Merritt K. Fretting corrosion in saline and serum. J Biomed Mater Res 1981; 15: 479–488.Search in Google Scholar
Brown SA, Flemming CAC, Kawalec JS, Placko HE, Vassaux C, Merritt K, Payer JH, Kraay MJ. Fretting corrosion accelerates crevice corrosion of modular hip tapers. J Appl Biomater 1995; 6: 19–26.Search in Google Scholar
Bundy KJ, Williams CJ, Luedemann RE. Stress-enhanced ion release – the effect of static loading. Biomaterials 1991; 12: 627–639.Search in Google Scholar
Burstein GT, Liu C. Nucleation of corrosion pits in Ringer’s solution containing bovine serum. Corros Sci 2007; 49: 4296–4306.Search in Google Scholar
Burstein GT, Liu C, Souto RM. The effect of temperature on the nucleation of corrosion pits on titanium in Ringer’s physiological solution. Biomaterials 2005; 26: 245–256.Search in Google Scholar
Carroll WM, Kelly MJ. Corrosion behavior of nitinol wires in body fluid environments. J Biomed Mater Res 2003; 67A: 1123–1130.Search in Google Scholar
Castleman LS, Motzkin SM, Alicandri FP, Bonawit VL. Biocompatibility of nitinol alloy as an implant material. J Biomed Mater Res 1976; 10: 695–731.Search in Google Scholar
Choubey A, Basu B, Balasubramaniam R. Electrochemical behavior of Ti-based alloys in simulated human body fluid environment. Trends Biomater Artif Organs 2005; 18: 64–72.Search in Google Scholar
Chu CL, Guo C, Sheng XB, Dong YS, Lin PH, Yeung KWK, Chu PK. Microstructure, nickel suppression and mechanical characteristics of electropolished and photoelectrocatalytically oxidized biomedical nickel titanium shape memory alloy. Acta Biomater 2009; 5: 2238–2245.Search in Google Scholar
Clark GC, Williams DF. The effect of proteins on metallic corrosion. J Biomed Mater Res 1982; 16: 125–134.Search in Google Scholar
Clarke B, Carroll W, Rochev Y, Hynes M, Bradley D, Plumley D. Influence of nitinol wire surface treatment on oxide thickness and composition and its subsequent effect on corrosion resistance and nickel ion release. J Biomed Mater Res 2006; 79A: 61–70.Search in Google Scholar
Contu F, Elsener B, Bohni H. Characterization of implant materials in fetal bovine serum and sodium sulfate by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. I. Mechanically polished samples. J Biomed Mater Res 2002; 62: 412–421.Search in Google Scholar
Cragg AH, De Jong SC, Barnhart WH, Landas SK, Smith TP. Nitinol intravascular stent: results of preclinical evaluation. Radiology 1993; 189: 775–778.Search in Google Scholar
Cui ZD, Man HC, Yang XJ. The corrosion and nickel release behavior of laser surface-melted NiTi shape memory alloy in Hanks solution. Surface Coatings Tech 2005; 192: 347–353.Search in Google Scholar
Datye AV, Jaramillo M, Wu KH. Corrosion behavior of cardiovascular stents. In: Proceedings of the Second LACCEI International Latin American and Caribbean Conf Engineering and Technology, 2004: Paper 122, 2004.Search in Google Scholar
Drogowska M, Ménard H, Brossard L. Pitting of AISI 304 stainless steel in bicarbonate and chloride solutions. J Appl Electrochem 1997; 27: 169–177.Search in Google Scholar
Dutta RS, Madangopal K, Gadiyar HS, Banerjee S. Biocompatibility of Ni-Ti shape memory alloy. Br Corros J 1993; 28: 217–221.Search in Google Scholar
Edie JW, Andreasen GF, Zaytoun MP. Surface corrosion of nitinol and stainless steel under clinical conditions. Angle Orthod 1981; 51: 319–324.Search in Google Scholar
Eiselstein LE, Steffey D, Nissan A, Corlett N, Dugnani R, Kus E, Stewart SG. Acceptance criteria for corrosion resistance of medical devices: statistical analysis of nitinol pitting in in vivo environments. J Mater Eng Perform 2009; 18: 768–780.Search in Google Scholar
Endo K, Sachdeva R, Araki Y, Ohno H. Corrosion behavior of Ni-Ti shape memory alloy in a cell culture medium. In: Pelton AR, Hodgson D, Duerig T, editors. SMST-1994. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Menlo Park, CA: SMST Society, 1994: 197–201.Search in Google Scholar
Fasching A, Kus E, James B, Bhargava Y, Eiselstein L. The effects of heat treatment, surface condition and strain on nickel-leaching rates and corrosion performance in nitinol wires. In: Gilbert J, editor. Medical device materials V. Proceedings of the Materials and Processes for Medical Devices Conf 2009. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2010: 23–29.Search in Google Scholar
Ferguson Jr AB, Laing PG, Hodge ES. The ionization of metal implants in living tissues. J Bone Joint Surg 1960; 42A: 77–90.Search in Google Scholar
Figueira N, Silva TM, Carmezim MJ, Fernandes JCS. Corrosion behavior of NiTi alloy. Electrochim Acta 2009; 54: 921–926.Search in Google Scholar
Filip P, Tomasek V, Mazanec K. Corrosion properties of shape memory TiNi alloys. Metal Mater 1994; 32: 63–68.Search in Google Scholar
Flyvholm MA, Nielsen GD, Anderson A. Nickel content of blood and estimation of dietary intake. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1984; 179: 427–431.Search in Google Scholar
Fraker AC. Corrosion of metallic implants and prosthetic devices. In: Davis JR, editor. ASM handbook, vol 13. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 1987: 1324–1335.Search in Google Scholar
Fraker AC, Ruff AW, Yeager MP. Corrosion of titanium alloys in physiological solutions. In: Jaffee RI, Burte HM, editors. Titanium science and technology, vol 4. Proceedings of the Second International Conference. New York: Plenum, 1973: 2447–2457.Search in Google Scholar
Fraker AC, Ruff AW, Sung P, Van Orden AC, Speck KM. Surface preparation and corrosion behavior of titanium alloys for surgical implants. In: Luckey HA, Kubli F Jr, editors. Titanium alloys in surgical implants. ASTM STP 796. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 1983: 206–219.Search in Google Scholar
Frankel GS. Pitting corrosion. In: Cramer SD, Covino BS Jr, editors. ASM handbook, vol 13A. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2003: 236–241.Search in Google Scholar
Fukushima O, Yoneyama T, Doi H, Hanawa T. Corrosion resistance and surface characterization of electrolyzed Ti-Ni alloy. Dent Mater J 2006; 25: 151–160.Search in Google Scholar
Gilbert JL, Jacobs JJ. The mechanical and electrochemical processes associated with taper fretting crevice corrosion: a review. In: Marlowe DE, Parr JE, Mayor MB, editors. Modularity of orthopedic implants. STP 1301. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 1997: 45–59.Search in Google Scholar
Gilbert JL, Buckley CA, Jacobs JJ. In vivo corrosion of modular hip prosthesis components in mixed and similar metal combinations. The effect of crevice, stress, motion, and alloy coupling. J Biomed Mater Res 1993; 27: 1533–1544.Search in Google Scholar
Gilbert JL, Buckley CA, Lautenschlager EP. Titanium oxide film fracture and repassivation: the effect of potential, pH and aeration. In: Brown SA, Lemons JE, editors. Medical applications of titanium and its alloys: The material and biological issues. ASTM STP 1272. Philadelphia, PA: ASTM International, 1996: 199–215.Search in Google Scholar
Goldberg JR, Gilbert JL. The electrochemical and mechanical behavior of passivated and TiN/AlN-coated CoCrMo and Ti6Al4V alloys. Biomaterials 2004; 25: 851–864.Search in Google Scholar
Goldberg JR, Gilbert JL, Jacobs JJ, Bauer TW, Paprosky W, Leurgans S. A multicenter retrieval study of the taper interfaces of modular hip prostheses. Clin Orthop 2002; 401: 149–161.Search in Google Scholar
Guidoin R, Marois Y, Douville Y, King MW, Castonguay M, Traoré A, Formichi M, Staxrud LE, Norgren L, Bergeron P, Becquemin J-P, Egana JM, Harris PL. First-generation aortic endografts: analysis of explanted stentor devices from the EUROSTAR Registry. J Endovasc Ther 2000; 7: 105–122.Search in Google Scholar
Guidon R, Zhang Z, Dionne G, Douville Y, King M, Legrand A-P, Doppelt P. Corrosion of the nitinol wire of endovascular prostheses: does nickel ion release impair the devices performance? In: Helmus M, Medlin D, editors. Proceedings of the Materials and Processes for Medical Devices Conf 2004. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2005: 284–289.Search in Google Scholar
Hallab NJ, Jacobs JJ, Skipor A, Black J, Mikecz K, Galante JO. Systemic metal-protein binding associated with total joint replacement arthroplasty. J Biomed Mater Res 2000; 49: 353–361.Search in Google Scholar
Hallab NJ, Mikecz K, Vermes C, Skipor A, Jacobs JJ. Differential lymphocyte reactivity to serum-derived metal-protein complexes produced from cobalt-based and titanium-based implant alloy degradation. J Biomed Mater Res 2001; 56: 427–436.Search in Google Scholar
Halwani DO, Anderson PG, Brott BC, Anayiotos AS, Lemons JE. Clinical device-related article surface characterization of explanted endovascular stents: evidence of in vivo corrosion. J Biomed Mater Res 2010; 95B: 225–238.Search in Google Scholar
Hanawa T, Asami K, Asaoka K. Repassivation of titanium and surface oxide film regenerated in simulated bioliquid. J Biomed Mater Res 1998; 40: 530–538.Search in Google Scholar
Hansen DC. The effect of a novel biopolymer on the corrosion of 316L stainless steel and Ti6Al4V alloys in a physiologically relevant electrolyte. In: CORROSION 2007. Houston, TX: NACE International, 2007: Paper 07677.Search in Google Scholar
Hoar TP, Mears DC. Corrosion resistant alloys in chloride solutions. Proc Royal Soc Series A 1966; 294: 486–510.Search in Google Scholar
Hwang WS, Kim KJ, Seo WC. Pitting corrosion of TiNi shape memory alloy in deaerated chloride solution. 13th Int Corrosion Congress. Houston, TX: NACE International, 1994: Paper 381.Search in Google Scholar
Jacobs JJ, Skipor AK, Black J, Patterson LM, Paprosky WP, Galante JO. A 3-year prospective study of serum titanium levels in patients with primary total hip replacements. In: Brown SA, Lemons JE, editors. Applications of titanium and its alloys: the material and biological issues. ASTM STP 1272. Philadelphia, PA: ASTM International, 1996: 400–408.Search in Google Scholar
Jacobs JJ, Gilbert JL, Urban RM. Corrosion of metal orthopaedic implants. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1998a; 80: 268–282.Search in Google Scholar
Jacobs JJ, Skipor AK, Patterson LM, Hallab NJ, Paprosky WG, Black J, Galante JO. Metal release in patients who have had a primary total hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1998b; 80: 1447–58.Search in Google Scholar
Kajzer W, Kaczmarek M, Krauze A, Marciniak J. Surface modification and corrosion resistance of Ni-Ti alloy used for urological stents. J Achieve Mater Manuf Eng 2007; 20: 123–126.Search in Google Scholar
Kaneko K, Yokoyama K, Moriyama K, Asaoka K, Sakai J. Degradation in performance of orthodontic wires caused by hydrogen absorption during short-term immersion in 20% acidulated phosphate fluoride solution. Angle Orthod 2004; 74: 487–495.Search in Google Scholar
Khan MA, Williams RL, Williams DF. Conjoint corrosion and wear in titanium alloys. Biomaterials 1999a; 20: 765–772.Search in Google Scholar
Khan MA, Williams RL, Williams DF. The corrosion behavior of Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-13Nb-13Zr in protein solutions. Biomaterials 1999b; 20: 631–637.Search in Google Scholar
Kocijan A, Milosev I, Pihlar B. The influence of complexing agent and proteins on the corrosion of stainless steels and their metal components. J Mater Sci Mater Med 2003; 14: 69–77.Search in Google Scholar
Kolman DG, Scully JR. On the repassivation behavior of high-purity titanium and selected α, β, and β+α titanium alloys in aqueous chloride solutions. J Electrochem Soc 1996; 143: 1847–1860.Search in Google Scholar
Lasley CC, Mitchell MR, Dooley BA, Bruchman WC, Warner CP. The corrosion of nitinol by exposure to decontamination solutions. In: Pelton AR, Hodgson D, Duerig T, editors. SMST-2003. Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2004: 375–384.Search in Google Scholar
Latal D, Mraz J, Zerhau P, Susani M, Marberger M. Nitinol urethral stents: long-term results in dogs. Urol Res 1994; 22: 295–300.Search in Google Scholar
Marek M. Interpretation of corrosion test results and prediction of clinical performance of medical devices. In: Helmus M, Medlin D, editors. Medical device materials II. Proceedings of the Materials and Processes for Medical Devices Conference 2004. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2005: 369–374.Search in Google Scholar
Mathiesen EB, Lindgren JU, Blomgren GG, Reinholt FP. Corrosion of modular hip prostheses. J Bone Joint Surg 1991; 73B: 569–575.Search in Google Scholar
McLucas E, Rochev Y, Carroll WM, Smith TJ. Analysis of the effects of surface treatments on nickel release from nitinol wires and their impact on candidate gene expression in endothelial cells. J Mater Sci Mater Med 2008; 19: 975–980.Search in Google Scholar
Meachim G, Williams DF. Changes in nonosseous tissue adjacent to titanium implants. J Biomed Mater Res 1973; 7: 555–572.Search in Google Scholar
Merrit K, Brown SA. Distribution of cobalt chromium wear and corrosion products and biologic reactions. Clin Orthop Rel Res 1996; 329S: S233–S243.Search in Google Scholar
Milosev I, Strehblow H-H. The behavior of stainless steels in physiological solution containing complexing agent studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. J Biomed Mater Res 2000; 52: 404–412.Search in Google Scholar
Milosev I, Strehblow H-H. The composition of the surface passive film formed on CoCrMo alloys in simulated physiological solution. Electrochim Acta 2003; 48: 2767–2774.Search in Google Scholar
Muller IL, Galvele JR. Pitting potential of high purity binary aluminium alloys – I. Al-Cu alloys. Pitting and intergranular corrosion. Corros Sci 1977; 17: 179–189, 191–193.Search in Google Scholar
Nakayama Y, Yamamuro T, Kotoura Y, Oka M. In vivo measurement of anodic polarization of orthopaedic implant alloys: comparative study of in vivo and in vitro experiments. Biomaterials 1989; 10: 420–424.Search in Google Scholar
O’Brien B, Carroll WM, Kelly MJ. Passivation of nitinol wire for vascular implants – a demonstration of the benefits. Biomaterials 2002; 23: 1739–1748.Search in Google Scholar
Ogundele GI, White WE. Polarization studies on surgical grade stainless steels in Hanks’ physiological solution. In: Fraker AC, Griffin CD, editors. Corrosion and degradation of implant materials: second symposium. ASTM STP 859. Philadelphia, PA: ASTM International, 1985: 117–135.Search in Google Scholar
Pan J, Thierry D, Leygraf C. Electrochemical and XPS studies of titanium for biomaterial applications with respect to the effect of hydrogen peroxide. J Biomed Mater Res 1994; 28: 113–122.Search in Google Scholar
Pászti Z, Guczi L. Amino acid adsorption on hydrophilic TiO2: a sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy study. Vibrat Spectrosc 2009; 50: 48–56.Search in Google Scholar
Pelton BL, Slater T, Pelton AR. Effects of hydrogen in TiNi. In: Pelton AR, Duerig T, editors. SMST-97. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 1997: 395–400.Search in Google Scholar
Pértile LB, Silva PMS, Peccin VB, Peres R, Silveira PG, Giacomelli C, Giacomelli FC, Fredel MC, Spinelli A. In vivo human electrochemical properties of a NiTi-based alloy (Nitinol) used for minimally invasive implants. J Biomed Mater Res 2009; 89A: 1072–1078.Search in Google Scholar
Popa MV, Demetrescu I, Vasilescu E, Drob P, Lopez AS, Mirza-Rosca J, Vasilescu C, Ionita D. Corrosion susceptibility of implant materials Ti-5Al-4V and Ti-6Al-4Fe in artificial extra-cellular fluids. Electrochim Acta 2004; 49: 2113–2121.Search in Google Scholar
Pound BG. Susceptibility of nitinol to localized corrosion. J Biomed Mater Res 2006; 77A: 185–191.Search in Google Scholar
Pound BG. The electrochemical behavior of nitinol in simulated physiological solutions. J Biomed Mater Res 2008; 85A: 1103–1113.Search in Google Scholar
Pound BG. Corrosion behavior of nitinol in blood serum and PBS containing amino acids. J Biomed Mater Res Part B 2010; 94B: 287–295.Search in Google Scholar
Revie R, Greene ND. Comparison of the in-vivo and in-vitro corrosion of 18-8 stainless steel and titanium. J Biomed Mater Res 1969a; 3: 465–470.Search in Google Scholar
Revie RW, Greene ND. Corrosion behavior of surgical implant materials. I. Effects of sterilization. Corros Sci 1969b; 9: 755–762.Search in Google Scholar
Riepe G, Heintz C, Birken L, Kaiser E, Chakfe N, Morlock M, Delling G, Imig H. Degradation of stentor devices after implantation in human beings. In: Russell SM, Pelton AR, editors. SMST-2000. Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Menlo Park, CA: SMST Society, 2001: 279–283.Search in Google Scholar
Ries MW, Kampmann C, Rupprecht HJ, Hintereder G, Hafner G, Meyer J. Nickel release after implantation of the Amplatzer occluder. Am Heart J 2003; 145: 737–41.Search in Google Scholar
Rodrigues DC, Urban RM, Jacobs JJ, Gilbert JL. In vivo severe corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement of retrieved modular body titanium alloy hip implants. J Biomed Mat Res B 2009; 88: 206–19.Search in Google Scholar
Rondelli G. Corrosion resistance tests on NiTi shape memory alloy. Biomaterials 1996; 17: 2003–2008.Search in Google Scholar
Rondelli G, Vicentini B. Evaluation by electrochemical tests of the passive film stability of equiatomic Ni-Ti alloy also in presence of stress-induced martensite. J Biomed Mater Res 2000; 51: 47–54.Search in Google Scholar
Rostoker W, Galante JO, Lereim P. Evaluation of couple/crevice corrosion by prosthetic alloys under in vivo conditions. J Biomed Mater Res 1978; 12: 823–829.Search in Google Scholar
Runciman A, Chen KC, Pelton AR, Trépanier C. Effects of hydrogen on the phases and transition temperatures of NiTi. In: Berg, B, Mitchell MR, Proft J, editors. SMST-2006. Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2008: 185–196.Search in Google Scholar
Ryhänen J, Kallioinen M, Serlo W, Perämäki P, Junila J, Sandvik P, Niemelä E, Tuukkanen J. Bone healing and mineralization, implant corrosion and trace metals after nickel-titanium shape memory metal intramedullary fixation. J Biomed Mater Res 1999; 47: 472–480.Search in Google Scholar
Schiff N, Bionet M, Morgon L, Lissac M, Dalard F, Grosgogeat B. Galvanic corrosion between orthodontic wires and brackets in fluoride mouthwashes. Eur J Orthod 2006; 28: 298–304.Search in Google Scholar
Schroeder V. Evolution of the passive film on mechanically damaged nitinol. J Biomed Mater Res 2009; 90A: 1–17.Search in Google Scholar
Scully JR, Kelly RG. Methods for determining aqueous corrosion reaction rates. In: Cramer SD, Covino BS Jr, editors. ASM handbook, vol 13A. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2003: 68–86.Search in Google Scholar
Sedriks AJ. Corrosion of stainless steels. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1979: 65–66.Search in Google Scholar
Shabalovskaya SA. On the nature of the biocompatibility and on medical applications of NiTi shape memory and superelastic alloys. Biomed Mater Eng 1996; 6: 267–289.Search in Google Scholar
Shabalovskaya SA. Surface, corrosion and biocompatibility aspects of nitinol as an implant material. Biomed Mater Eng 2002; 12: 69–109.Search in Google Scholar
Shabalovskaya S, Rondelli G, Itin V, Anderegg J. Surface and corrosion aspects of NiTi alloys. In: Russell SM, Pelton AR, editors. SMST-2000. Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Menlo Park, CA: SMST Society, 2001: 299–308.Search in Google Scholar
Shabalovskaya S, Rondelli G, Anderegg J, Simpson B, Budko S. Effect of chemical etching and aging in boiling water on the corrosion resistance of nitinol wires with black oxide resulting from manufacturing process. J Biomed Mater Res B 2003; 66B: 331–340.Search in Google Scholar
Shabalovskaya SA, Anderegg J, Rondelli G, Xiong J-P. The effect of surface particulates on the corrosion resistance of nitinol wire. In: Pelton AR, Duerig T, editors. SMST-2003. Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Menlo Park, CA: SMST Society, 2004a: 399–408.Search in Google Scholar
Shabalovskaya S, Rondelli G, Anderegg J, Xiong JP, Wu M. Comparative corrosion performance of black oxide, sandblasted, and fine-drawn nitinol wires in potentiodynamic and potentiostatic tests: effects of chemical etching and electropolishing. J Biomed Mater Res 2004b; 69B: 223–231.Search in Google Scholar
Shabalovskaya S, Anderegg J, Van Humbeeck J. Recent observations of particulates in nitinol. Mater Sci Eng A 2008; 481–482: 431–436.Search in Google Scholar
Shih C-C, Lin S-J, Chung K-H, Chen Y-L, Su Y-Y. Increased corrosion resistance of stent materials by converting current surface film of polycrystalline oxide into amorphous oxide. J Biomed Mater Res 2000; 52: 323–332.Search in Google Scholar
Shreir LL, Jarman RA, Burstein GT, editors. Corrosion, 3rd ed. New York: Butterworth Heinemann, 1994: 21: 29.Search in Google Scholar
Silverman DC. Tutorial on cyclic potentiodynamic polarization technique. In: CORROSION/98. Houston, TX: NACE International, 1998: Paper 299.Search in Google Scholar
Silverman DC. Practical corrosion prediction using electrochemical techniques. In: Revie RW, editor. Uhlig’s Corrosion Handbook, 2nd ed., New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000: 1179–1225.Search in Google Scholar
Solar RJ. Corrosion resistance of titanium surgical implant alloys: a review. In: Syrett BC, Acharya A, editors. Corrosion and degradation of implant materials. STP 684. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 1979; 259–273.Search in Google Scholar
Solar RJ, Pollack SR, Korostoff E. In vitro corrosion testing of titanium surgical implant alloys: an approach to understanding titanium release from implants. J Biomed Mater Res 1979a; 13: 217–250.Search in Google Scholar
Solar RJ, Pollack SR, Korostoff E. Titanium release from implants: a proposed mechanism. In: Syrett BC, Acharya A, editors. STP 684. Philadelphia, PA: ASTM International, 1979b: 161–172.Search in Google Scholar
Sousa SR, Barbosa MA. Corrosion resistance of titanium CP in saline physiological solutions with calcium phosphate and proteins. Clin Mater 1993; 14: 287–294.Search in Google Scholar
Souto RM, Burstein GT. A preliminary investigation into the microscopic depassivation of passive titanium implant materials in vitro. J Mater Sci Mater Med 1996; 7: 337–343.Search in Google Scholar
Speck KM, Fraker AC. Anodic polarization behavior of Ti-Ni and Ti-6Al-4V in simulated physiological solutions. J Dent Res 1980; 59: 1590–1595.Search in Google Scholar
Sunderman FW, Hopfer SM, Sweeny KR, Marcus AH, Most BM, Creason J. Nickel absorption and kinetics in human volunteers. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1989; 191: 5–11.Search in Google Scholar
Sutow EJ, Jones DW, Milne EL. In vitro crevice corrosion behavior of implant materials. J Dent Res 1985; 64: 842–847.Search in Google Scholar
Szklarska-Smialowska Z. Pitting Corrosion of Metals. Houston, TX: NACE International, 1986.Search in Google Scholar
Tabrizian M, Thierry B, Savadago O, Yahia L’H. Surface characteristics of sterilized electropolished NiTi shape memory alloy as biomaterials. In: Proceedings of the SPIE Conference on Sensory Phenomena and Measurement Instrumentation for Smart Structures and Materials. SPIE, 1999; 3670: 106–114.Search in Google Scholar
Thierry B, Tabrizian M, Trépanier C, Savadogo O, Yahia LH. Effect of surface treatment and sterilization processes on the corrosion behavior of NiTi shape memory alloy. J Biomed Mater Res 2000; 51: 685–693.Search in Google Scholar
Toro A, Zhou, F, Wu MH, Van Geertruyden W, Misiolek WZ. Characterization of non-metallic inclusions in superelastic NiTi tubes. J Mater Eng Perform 2009; 18: 448–458.Search in Google Scholar
Trépanier C, Pelton AR. Effect of strain on the corrosion resistance of nitinol and stainless steel in simulated physiological environment. In: Pelton AR, Duerig T, editors. SMST-2003. Proceedings of the International Conference Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Menlo Park, CA: SMST Society, 2004: 393–398.Search in Google Scholar
Trépanier C, Tabrizian M, Yahia L’H, Bilodeau L, Piron DL. Effect of modification of oxide layer on NiTi stent corrosion resistance. J Biomed Mater Res 1998; 43: 433–440.Search in Google Scholar
Trépanier C, Venugopalan R, Messer R, Zimmerman J, Pelton AR. Effect of passivation treatments on nickel release from nitinol. In: 6th World Biomaterials Congress Trans. Mount Laurel, NJ: Society for Biomaterials, 2000: 1043.Search in Google Scholar
Trépanier C, Zhu L, Fino J, Pelton AR. Corrosion resistance of oxidized nitinol. In: Pelton AR, Duerig T, editors. SMST-2003. Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Menlo Park, CA: SMST Society, 2004: 367–373.Search in Google Scholar
Trépanier C, Gong X-Y, Ditter T, Pelton A, Neely Y, Grishaber R. Effect of wear and crevice on the corrosion resistance of overlapped stents. In: Berg B, Mitchell MR, Proft J, editors. SMST-2006. Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Menlo Park, CA: SMST Society, 2008: 265–275.Search in Google Scholar
Vandenkerckhove R, Temmerman E, Verbeeck R. Electrochemical research on the corrosion of orthodontic nickel-titanium wires. Mater Sci Forum 1998; 289–292: 1289–1298.Search in Google Scholar
Venugopalan R. Corrosion testing of stents: a novel fixture to hold entire device in deployed form and finish. J Biomed Mater Res 1999; 48: 829–832.Search in Google Scholar
Venugopalan R, Trépanier C. Assessing the corrosion behavior of nitinol for minimally-invasive device design. Minim Invasive Ther Allied Technol 2000; 9: 67–74.Search in Google Scholar
Venugopalan R, Trépanier C, Pelton AR, Lucas LC. Comparative electrochemical behavior of NiTi and 316L stainless steel. Trans 25th Annu Meeting Soc Biomater 1999; XXII: 144.Search in Google Scholar
Vroman L, Adams A, Fisher G, Munoz P. Interaction of high molecular weight kininogen, factor XII and fibrinogen in plasma at interfaces. Blood 1980; 55: 156–159.Search in Google Scholar
Walak S. Analysis of nitinol stent-grafts after long term in-vivo exposure. In: Helmus M, Medlin D, editors. Medical device materials II. Proceedings of the Materials and Processes for Medical Devices Conference 2004. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2005: 290–294.Search in Google Scholar
Wang MS, Palmer LBP, Schwartz JD, Razatos A. Evaluating protein attraction and adhesion to biomaterials with the atomic force microscope. Langmuir 2004; 20: 7753–7759.Search in Google Scholar
Warner CP. The effect of exposure to simulated body fluids on breakdown potentials. J Mater Eng Perform 2009; 18: 754–759.Search in Google Scholar
Wever DJ, Veldhuizen AG, de Vries J, Busscher HJ, Uges DR, van Horn JR. Electrochemical and surface characterization of a nickel-titanium alloy. Biomaterials 1998; 19: 761–769.Search in Google Scholar
Wilde BE, Williams E. The use of current/voltage curves for the study of localized corrosion and passivity breakdown on stainless steels in chloride media. Electrochim Acta 1971; 16: 1971–1985.Search in Google Scholar
Williams RL, Brown SA, Merritt K. Electrochemical studies on the influence of proteins on the corrosion of implant alloys. Biomaterials 1988; 9: 181–186.Search in Google Scholar
Xin Y, Hu T, Chu PK. Influence of test solutions on in vitro studies of biomedical magnesium alloys. J Electrochem Soc 2010; 157: C238–C243.Search in Google Scholar
Yeung KWK, Chan RYL, Lam KO, Wu SL, Liu XM, Chung CY, Chu PK, Lu WW, Chan D, Luk KDK, Cheung KMC. In vitro and in vivo characterization of novel plasma treated nickel titanium shape memory alloy for orthopedic implantation. Surf Coat Technol 2007; 202: 1247–1251.Search in Google Scholar
Yokoyama K, Hamada K, Moriyama K, Asaoka K. Degradation and fracture of NiTi superelastic wire in an oral cavity. Biomaterials 2001; 22: 2257–2262.Search in Google Scholar
Yokoyama K, Kaneko K, Moriyama K, Asaoka K, Sakai J, Nagumo M. Delayed fracture of Ni-Ti superelastic alloys in acidic and neutral fluoride solutions. J Biomed Mater Res 2004; 69A: 105–113.Search in Google Scholar
Zhu L, Fino JM, Pelton AR. Oxidation of nitinol. In: Pelton AR, Duerig T, editors. SMST-2003. Proceedings of the International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies. Menlo Park, CA: SMST Society, 2004: 357–366.Search in Google Scholar
Zitter H, Plenk H Jr. The electrochemical behavior of metallic implant materials as an indicator of their biocompatibility. J Biomed Mater Res 1987; 21: 881–896.Search in Google Scholar
©2014 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin/Boston