Spatiotemporal Degradation of Abandoned Farmland and Associated Eco-Environmental Risks in the High Mountains of the Nepalese Himalayas
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Acquisition and Processing
2.3. Assessment of Spatiotemporal Degradation of Farmland
- (i)
- Swelling—damage to the terraces’ uppermost thin soil layer with cracks similar to desert pavement, which developed due to displacement and removal of the particles. In this case, terrace surfaces or walls laced with layers of certain types of layers generally bear no depth of damage.
- (ii)
- Upsetting—terraces tilted at irregular spaces. This feature marked terraces that were easier to break or were easily eroded. This was an extremely dangerous condition threatening sudden and catastrophic terrace collapse.
- (iii)
- Bulge—terraces that were opened beyond their original shape were noted as bulging. In this condition, individual terraces or a portion of an individual terrace was opened, unstable, and had collapse features. This condition was harder to maintain.
- (iv)
- Collapse—structural failures, in which boulders or lithospheric materials were embedded along the terraces, which manifested at collapsed areas. The material beneath the collapsed landforms played a significant role in the geomorphic evolution.
2.4. Selection of Causes of Farmland Degradation
2.5. Analysis of Hazard and Risk
3. Results
3.1. Assessment of Abandoned Farmland Spatiotemporal Degradation
3.2. Identification of Major Causes of Degradation and Statistical Analysis
3.3. Eco-Environmental Risks Associated with the Degradation of Abandoned Farmlands
3.3.1. Landslides
3.3.2. Debris Flows
3.3.3. Gullies
3.3.4. Rock Falls
3.3.5. Soil Erosion
3.3.6. Sinkholes
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Categories | Data | Unit | Sources |
---|---|---|---|
Biophysical | Elevation | Meters | Field Survey, GPS |
Slope | Degrees | Digital elevation model (DEM), USGS | |
Soil | Type | Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP) of Nepal,1986 | |
Socioeconomic | Age of abandonment | Year | Field Survey |
Grazing | Y/N | Field Survey | |
Mining/soil digging | Y/N | Field Survey | |
Climate | Annual precipitation | Millimeters (mm) | Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM), Nepal Government |
Neighborhood | Distance to road | Meters | Department of Survey (DoS), Nepal Government |
Distance to river/stream | Meters | Department of Survey (DoS), Nepal Government | |
Distance to settlement | Meters | Department of Survey (DoS), Nepal Government | |
Distance to forest | Meters | Department of Survey (DoS), Nepal Government |
Variables | Explanatory Definition | Expected Relationship to Farmland Degradation |
---|---|---|
A. Biophysical | ||
Elevation | Mean altitude recorded by GPS (meters) | Farmlands located at higher elevations are more likely to have a terrace failure |
Slope | Mean slope degrees (21–30° = 1, 31–40° = 2, 41–50° = 3) | Farmlands with higher gradient are more likely to have a terrace failure |
B. Socioeconomic | ||
Age of abandonment | Farmland since abandonment (years) | Farmlands with a long period of abandonment are likely to have damage |
Grazing | Grazing activities (yes = 1, no = 2) | Farmlands with grazing activities are more likely to have damage |
Mining and soil digging | Mining/digging activities (yes = 1, no = 2) | Farmlands with mining/soil digging activities are more likely to be degraded |
C. Climate | ||
Annual precipitation | Mean precipitation (millimeters) | Variation in rainfall pattern may have diverse pattern of land degradation |
D. Neighborhood | ||
Distance to road | Mean distance to vehicle passable road (meters) | Farmlands located closer to roads are more likely to have terrace failure |
Distance to river/stream | Mean distance to major river/stream (meters) | Farmlands located closer to river/streams are more likely to have terrace failure |
Distance to settlement | Mean distance to major settlement (meters) | Farmlands located close to settlements are more likely to have grazing and therefore terrace failure |
Distance to forest | Mean distance to nearby forest (meters) | Farmlands located closer to forests are more likely to have terrace failure |
Categories | Variables | Beta (β) | Standard Error (SE) | Significance (þ) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Biophysical | Elevation (meters) | −0.171 | 0.000 | 0.195 |
Slope (degrees) | −0.142 | 0.036 | 0.100*** | |
Climate | Rainfall (millimeters) | −0.158 | 0.030 | 0.300 |
Socioeconomic | Age of abandonment (years) | −0.005 | 0.003 | 0.943 |
Grazing activities | 0.677 | 0.057 | 0.000* | |
Mining/digging | −0.001 | 0.087 | 0.987 | |
Neighborhood | Distance to river/stream (metre) | 0.075 | 0.000 | 0.454 |
Distance to settlement (meters) | 0.046 | 0.000 | 0.620 | |
Distance to road (meters) | −0.009 | 0.000 | 0.921 | |
Distance to forest (meters) | −0.002 | 0.000 | 0.979 |
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Chaudhary, S.; Wang, Y.; Dixit, A.M.; Khanal, N.R.; Xu, P.; Fu, B.; Yan, K.; Liu, Q.; Lu, Y.; Li, M. Spatiotemporal Degradation of Abandoned Farmland and Associated Eco-Environmental Risks in the High Mountains of the Nepalese Himalayas. Land 2020, 9, 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9010001
Chaudhary S, Wang Y, Dixit AM, Khanal NR, Xu P, Fu B, Yan K, Liu Q, Lu Y, Li M. Spatiotemporal Degradation of Abandoned Farmland and Associated Eco-Environmental Risks in the High Mountains of the Nepalese Himalayas. Land. 2020; 9(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9010001
Chicago/Turabian StyleChaudhary, Suresh, Yukuan Wang, Amod Mani Dixit, Narendra Raj Khanal, Pei Xu, Bin Fu, Kun Yan, Qin Liu, Yafeng Lu, and Ming Li. 2020. "Spatiotemporal Degradation of Abandoned Farmland and Associated Eco-Environmental Risks in the High Mountains of the Nepalese Himalayas" Land 9, no. 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9010001