Abstract
Decision making requires evaluating alternatives that differ on a number of attributes. During this evaluation process, selection of options depends on the duration of the options, the duration of the expected delay for realizing the options, and the time available to reach a decision. This article reviews the relationship between time and decision making in humans with respect to this evaluation process. Moreover, the role of psychological time, as compared with physical time, is accentuated. Five topics have been selected that illustrate how time and mental representations of time affect decision making. These are (1) the duration of options, (2) temporal decision making, (3) the time between having made a decision and experiencing the consequences of that decision, (4) the temporal perspective of decision makers, and (5) the duration of the decision process. The discussion of each topic is supplemented by suggestions for further research. It is shown that psychological time is often neglected in human decision making but seems to play an important role in the making of choices.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ainslie, G. (1992). Picoeconomics: The strategic interaction of successive motivational states within the person. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Allan, L. G. (1998). The influence of the scalar timing model on human timing research. Behavioural Processes, 44, 101–117.
Ariely, D., & Loewenstein, G. (2000). The importance of duration in judgment and decision making. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129, 508–523.
Ariely, D., & Zakay, D. (2001). A timely account of the role of duration in decision making. Acta Psychologica, 108, 187–207.
Barkley, R. A., Edwards, G., Laneri, M., Fletcher, K., & Metevia, L. (2001). Executive functioning, temporal discounting, and sense of time in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 541–556.
Bechara, A., Dolan, S., & Hindes, A. (2002). Decision-making and addiction (part II): Myopia for the future of hypersensitivity to reward? Neuropsychologia, 40, 1690–1705.
Benson, L., & Beach, L. R. (1996). The effects of time constraints on the prechoice screening of decision options. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 67, 222–228.
Berlin, H. A., Rolls, E. T., & Kischka, U. (2004). Impulsivity, time perception, emotion and reinforcement sensitivity in patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions. Brain, 127, 1108–1126.
Berns, G. S., Laibson, D., & Loewenstein, G. (2007). Intertemporal choice—toward an integrative framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 482–488.
Betsch, T., Fiedler, K., & Brinkmann, J. (1998). Behavioral routines in decision making: The effects of novelty in task presentation and time pressure on routine maintenance and deviation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28, 861–878.
Block, R. A. (2003). Psychological timing without a timer: The roles of attention and memory. In H. Helfrich (Ed.), Time and mind II: Information processing perspectives (pp. 41–59). Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber.
Block, R. A., & Zakay, D. (1997). Prospective and retrospective duration judgments: A meta-analytic review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 4, 184–197.
Bogacz, R., Brown, E., Moehlis, J., Holmes, P., & Cohen, J. D. (2006). The physics of optimal decision making: A formal analysis of models of performance in two-alternative force choice tasks. Psychological Review, 113, 700–765.
Brandtstädter, J., & Wentura, D. (1994). Veränderungen der Zeitund Zukunftsperspektive im Übergang zum höheren Erwachsenenalter: Entwicklungspsychologische und differentielle Aspekte. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie & Pädagogische Psychologie, 26, 2–21.
Brown, S. W. (1997). Attentional resources in timing: Interference effects in concurrent temporal and nontemporal working memory tasks. Perception & Psychophysics, 59, 1118–1140.
Brown, S. [W.], & Heathcote, A. (2005). A ballistic model of choice response time. Psychological Review, 112, 117–128.
Burle, B., & Bonnet, M. (2000). High-speed memory scanning: A behavioral argument for a serial oscillatory model. Cognitive Brain Research, 9, 327–337.
Burle, B., Macar, F., & Bonnet, M. (2003). Behavioral and electrophysiological oscillations in information processing: A tentative synthesis. In H. Helfrich (Ed.), Time and mind II: Information processing perspectives (pp. 209–232). Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber.
Busemeyer, J. R. (1985). Decision making under uncertainty: A comparison of simple scalability, fixed-sample, and sequential-sampling models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 11, 538–564.
Busemeyer, J. R., & Townsend, J. T. (1993). Decision field theory: A dynamic-cognitive approach to decision making in an uncertain environment. Psychological Review, 100, 432–459.
Church, R. M., & DeLuty, M. Z. (1977). Bisection of temporal intervals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 3, 216–228.
Church, R. M., & Gibbon, J. (1982). Temporal generalization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 8, 165–186.
Cohen, M. S., Freeman, J. T., & Wolf, S. (1996). Meta-recognition in time-stressed decision making: Recognizing, critiquing, and correcting. Journal of the Human Factors & Ergonomics Society, 38, 206–219.
Dehaene, S. (1993). Temporal oscillations in human perception. Psychological Science, 4, 264–270.
Dellaert, B. G. C., & Kahn, B. E. (1999). How tolerable is delay? Consumers’ evaluations of Internet Web sites after waiting. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 13, 41–54.
Diederich, A. (2003). MDFT account of decision making under time pressure. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 10, 157–166.
Dror, I. E., Busemeyer, J. R., & Basola, B. (1999). Decision making under time pressure: An independent test of sequential sampling models. Memory & Cognition, 27, 713–725.
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Making fast strategic decisions in high-velocity environments. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 543–576.
Eisler, D. A., Eisler, H., & Montgomery, H. (2004). A quantitative model for retrospective subjective duration. Neuroquantology, 4, 263–291.
Fellows, L. K., & Farah, M. J. (2005). Dissociable elements of human foresight: A role for the ventromedial frontal lobes in framing the future, but not in discounting future rewards. Neuropsychologia, 43, 1214–1221.
Ferrara, A., Lejeune, H., & Wearden, J. H. (1997). Changing sensitivity to duration in human scalar timing: An experiment, a review, and some possible explanations. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 50B, 217–237.
Fillmore, M. T., & Rush, C. R. (2002). Impaired inhibitory control of behavior in chronic cocaine users. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 66, 265–273.
Forzano, L. B., & Logue, A. W. (1992). Predictors of adult humans’ selfcontrol and impulsiveness for food reinforcers. Appetite, 19, 33–47.
Francis-Smythe, J. A. (2006). Time management. In J. Glicksohn & M. S. Myslobodsky (Eds.), Timing the future. The case for a timebased prospective memory (pp. 143–170). Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific.
Francis-Smythe, J. A., & Robertson, I. T. (1999). On the relationship between time management and time estimation. British Journal of Psychology, 90, 333–347.
Frederick, S., Loewenstein, G., & O’Donoghue, T. (2002). Time discounting and time preference: A critical review. Journal of Economic Literature, 40, 351–401.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Kahneman, D. (1993). Duration neglect in retrospective evaluations of affective episodes. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 65, 44–55.
Friedman, W. (1990). About time: Inventing the fourth dimension. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Ghose, G. M., & Maunsell, J. H. (2002). Attentional modulation in visual cortex depends on task timing. Nature, 419, 616–620.
Gibbon, J., Church, R. M., & Meck, W. H. (1984). Scalar timing in memory. In J. Gibbon & L. Allan (Eds.), Timing and time perception (Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 423, pp. 52–77). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
Gilovich, T., Kerr, M., & Medvec, V. H. (1993). Effect of temporal perspective on subjective confidence. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 64, 552–560.
Glimcher, P. W., Kable, J., & Louie, K. (2007). Neuroeconomic studies of impulsivity: Now or just as soon as possible? American Economic Review, 97, 142–147.
Goldstein, W. M., & Busemeyer, J. R. (1992). The effect of “irrelevant” variables on decision making: Criterion shifts in preferential choice? Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 52, 425–454.
Green, L., Fristoe, N., & Myerson, J. (1994). Temporal discounting and preference reversals in choice between delayed outcomes. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1, 383–389.
Green, L., & Myerson, J. (1996). Exponential versus hyperbolic discounting of delayed outcomes: Risk and waiting time. American Zoologist, 36, 496–505.
Green, L., Myerson, J., & Macaux, E. W. (2005). Temporal discounting when the choice is between two delayed rewards. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 31, 1121–1133.
Greene, A. L. (1986). Future-time perspective in adolescence: The present of things future revisited. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 15, 99–113.
Grosjean, M., Rosenbaum, D. A., & Elsinger, C. (2001). Timing and reaction time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 256–272.
Hands, D. S., & Avons, S. E. (2001). Recency and duration neglect in subjective assessment of television picture quality. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, 639–657.
Henson, J. M., Carey, M. P., Carey, K. B., & Maisto, S. A. (2006). Associations among health behaviors and time perspective in young adults: Model testing with boot-strapping replication. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 127–137.
Ho, M.-Y., Mobini, S., Chiang, T.-J., Bradshaw, C. M., & Szabadi, E. (1999). Theory and method in the quantitative analysis of “impulsive choice” behavior: Implications for psychopharmacology. Psychopharmacology, 146, 362–372.
Hodgins, D. C., & Engel, A. (2002). Future time perspective in pathological gamblers. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 190, 775–780.
Hoffman, W. F., Moore, M., Templin, R., McFarland, B., Hitzemann, R. J., & Mitchell, S. H. (2006). Neuropsychological function and delay discounting in methamphetamine-dependent individuals. Psychopharmacology, 188, 162–170.
Hui, M. K., & Tse, D. K. (1996). What to tell consumers in waits of different lengths: An integrative model of service evaluation. Journal of Marketing, 60, 81–90.
Hui, M. K., & Zhou, L. (1996). How does waiting duration information influence customers’ reactions to waiting for services? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1702–1717.
Janssen, P., & Shadlen, M. N. (2005). A representation of the hazard rate of elapsed time in macaque area LIP. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 234–241.
Jones, B., & Rachlin, H. (2006). Social discounting. Psychological Science, 17, 283–286.
Kahneman, D., Fredrickson, B. L., Schreiber, C. A., & Redelmeier, D. A. (1993). When more pain is preferred to less: Adding a better end. Psychological Science, 4, 401–405.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263–291.
Kelly, J. R., & Karau, S. J. (1999). Group decision making: The effects of initial preferences and time pressure. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1342–1354.
Keough, K. A., Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Who’s smoking, drinking, and using drugs? Time perspective as a predictor of substance use. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 21, 149–164.
Kerstholt, J. (1994). The effect of time pressure on decision-making behavior in a dynamic task environment. Acta Psychologica, 86, 89–104.
Kirby, K. N., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1995). Preference reversals due to myopic discounting of delayed reward. Psychological Science, 6, 83–89.
Kirby, K. N., & Petry, N. M. (2004). Heroin and cocaine abusers have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than alcoholics or non-drugusing controls. Addiction, 99, 461–471.
Klapproth, F. (2002). The effect of study-test modalities on the remembrance of subjective duration from long-term memory. Behavioural Processes, 59, 39–48.
Klapproth, F. (2003a). Das modale Zeitgedächtnis. Untersuchungen zur Abhängigkeit der Gedächtnisleistung für kurze Zeitintervalle von der Reizmodalität. Doctoral dissertation. Available at web1.bib .unihildesheim.de/edocs/2003/372146562/meta/.
Klapproth, F. (2003b). Notable results regarding temporal memory and modality. In H. Helfrich (Ed.), Time and mind II: Information processing perspectives (pp. 79–96). Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber.
Klapproth, F. (2007). Time perception, estimation paradigm, and temporal relevance. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 104, 749–757.
Klapproth, F., & Müller, M. (2008). Temporal generalization under time pressure in humans. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 588–600.
Klein, G. (1997). The recognition-primed decision (RPD) model: Looking back, looking forward. In C. Zsambok & G. Klein (Eds.), Naturalistic decision making (pp. 285–292). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Krishnamurthy, P., & Kumar, P. (2002). Self-other discrepancies in waiting time decisions. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 87, 207–226.
Kühberger, A. (1998). The influence of framing on risky decisions: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 57, 23–55.
Laming, D. (1979). Autocorrelation of choice-reaction times. Acta Psychologica, 43, 381–412.
Laver, G. D. (2000). A speed-accuracy analysis of word recognition in young and older adults. Psychology & Aging, 15, 705–709.
Leclerc, F., Schmitt, B. H., & Dubé, L. (1995). Waiting time and decision making: Is time like money? Journal of Consumer Research, 22, 110–119.
Leland, D. S., & Paulus, M. P. (2005). Increased risk-taking decisionmaking but not altered response to punishment in stimulant-using young adults. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 78, 83–90.
Lessing, E. E. (1972). Extension of personal future time perspective, age, and life satisfaction of children and adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 6, 457–468.
Levin, I. P., Schneider, S. L., & Gaeth, G. J. (1998). All frames are not created equal: A typology and critical analysis of framing effects. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 76, 149–188.
Liberman, N., Sagristano, M. D., & Trope, Y. (2002). The effect of temporal distance on level of mental construal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 523–534.
Liberman, N., & Trope, Y. (1998). The role of feasibility and desirability considerations in near and distant future decisions: A test of temporal construal theory. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 75, 5–19.
Lilienfeld, S. O., Hess, T., & Rowland, C. (1996). Psychopathic personality traits and temporal perspective: A test of the short time horizon hypothesis. Journal of Psychopathology & Behavioral Assessment, 18, 285–314.
Link, S. W. (1992). The wave theory of difference similarity. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Loewenstein, G. (1996). Out of control: Visceral influences on behavior. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 65, 272–292.
Loewenstein, G., Weber, E., Hsee, C., & Welch, E. (2001). Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 267–286.
Luce, R. D. (1986). Response times: Their role in inferring elementary mental organization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lupker, S. J., Brown, P., & Colombo, L. (1997). Strategic control in a naming task: Changing routes or changing deadlines? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 23, 570–590.
Macar, F., & Vidal, F. (2003). The CNV peak: An index of decision making and temporal memory. Psychophysiology, 40, 950–954.
Macar, F., & Vidal, F. (2004). Event-related potentials as indices of time processing: A review. Journal of Psychophysiology, 18, 89–104.
MacDonald, C. J., & Meck, W. H. (2004). Systems-level integration of interval timing and reaction time. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28, 747–769.
Maule, A. J. (1997). Strategies for adapting to time pressure. In R. Flin, E. Salas, M. Strub, & L. Martin (Eds.), Decision-making under stress: Emerging themes and applications (pp. 271–279). Brookfield, VT: Ashgate.
Maule, A. J., Hockey, G. R. J., & Bdzola, L. (2000). Effects of time-pressure on decision-making under uncertainty: Changes in affective state and information processing strategy. Acta Psychologica, 104, 283–301.
McElroy, T., & Mascari, D. (2007). When is it going to happen? How temporal distance influences processing for risky-choice framing tasks. Social Cognition, 25, 495–517.
McGrath, J. E., & Tschan, F. (2004). Temporal matters in social psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Montague, P. R., & Berns, G. S. (2002). Neural economics and the biological substrates of valuation. Neuron, 36, 265–284.
Müller-Gethmann, H., Ulrich, R., & Rinkenauer, G. (2003). Locus of the effect of temporal preparation: Evidence from the lateralized readiness potential. Psychophysiology, 40, 597–611.
Munichor, N., Erev, I., & Lotem, A. (2006). Risk attitude in small timesaving decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 12, 129–141.
Myerson, J., & Green, L. (1995). Discounting of delayed rewards: Models of individual choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 64, 263–276.
Nosofsky, R. M., & Palmeri, T. J. (1997). An exemplar based random walk model of speeded classification. Psychological Review, 104, 266–300.
Orasanu, J. (1997). Stress and naturalistic decision making: Strengthening the weak links. In R. Flin, E. Salas, M. Strub, & L. Martin (Eds.), Decision-making under stress: Emerging themes and applications (pp. 43–66). Brookfield, VT: Ashgate.
Orasanu, J., & Fischer, U. (1997). Finding decisions in natural environments: The view from the cockpit. In C. Zsambok & G. Klein (Eds.), Naturalistic decision making (pp. 343–357). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Osuna, E. E. (1985). The psychological cost of waiting. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 29, 82–105.
Pachella, R. G., & Pew, R. W. (1968). Speed-accuracy trade-off in reaction time: Effect of discrete criterion times. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76, 19–24.
Payne, J. W., Bettman, J. R., & Johnson, E. J. (1993). The use of multiple strategies in judgment and choice. In N. J. Castellan (Ed.), Individual and group decision making (pp. 19–39). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Petry, N. M., Bickel, W. K., & Arnett, M. (1998). Shortened time horizons and insensitivity to future consequences in heroin addicts. Addiction, 93, 729–738.
Pfeuty, M., Ragot, R., & Pouthas, V. (2003). When time is up: CNV time course differentiates the roles in the hemispheres in the discrimination of short tome durations. Experimental Brain Research, 151, 372–379.
Pöppel, E. (1998). Erlebte Zeit und die Zeit überhaupt: Ein Versuch der Integration. In J. Aschoff, J. Assmann, & J.-P. Blaser (Eds.), Die Zeit: Dauer und Augenblick (4th ed., pp. 369–382). München: Piper.
Pouthas, V., Garnero, L., Ferrandez, A. M., & Renault, B. (2000). ERPs and PET analysis of time perception: Spatial and temporal brain mapping during visual discrimination tasks. Human Brain Mapping, 10, 49–60.
Praamstra, P., Kourtis, D., Kwok, H. F., & Oostenveld, R. (2006). Neurophysiology of implicit timing in serial choice reaction-time performance. Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 5448–5455.
Predebon, J. (1995). Prospective and retrospective time estimates as a function of clock duration. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 80, 941–942.
Rachlin, H. (1995). The value of temporal patterns in behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 188–192.
Ratcliff, R., & Rouder, J. N. (1998). Modeling response times for two-choice decisions. Psychological Science, 9, 347–356.
Ratcliff, R., & Smith, P. L. (2004). A comparison of sequential sampling models for two-choice reaction time. Psychological Review, 111, 333–367.
Read, D., Frederick, S., Orsel, B., & Rahman, J. (2005). Four score and seven years from now: The date/delay effect in temporal discounting. Management Science, 51, 1326–1335.
Read, D., & Loewenstein, G. (1999). Enduring pain for money: Decisions based on the perception and memory of pain. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 12, 1–17.
Redelmeier, D. A., & Kahneman, D. (1996). Patient’s memories of painful medical treatments: Real-time and retrospective evaluations of two minimally invasive procedures. Pain, 66, 3–8.
Reed, S. K. (2004). Cognition: Theory and applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson.
Rinot, M., & Zakay, D. (1999). Attending to duration (Tech. Rep.). Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, Department of Psychology.
Rohde, K. I. M. (2005). The hyperbolic factor: A measure of decreasing impatience (Research Memoranda 044). Maastricht: Maastricht Research School of Economics of Technology and Organization.
Roy, M. M., Christenfeld, N. J. S., & McKenzie, C. R. M. (2005). Underestimating the duration of future events: Memory incorrectly used or memory bias? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 738–756.
Russo, J. E., & Dosher, B. A. (1983). Strategies for multiattribute binary choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 9, 676–696.
Russo, J. E., & Schoemaker, J. H. (1989). Decision traps. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Ruthruff, E. (1996). A test of the deadline model for speed-accuracy tradeoffs. Perception & Psychophysics, 58, 56–64.
Sagristano, M. D., Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2002). Time-dependent gambling: Odds now, money later. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 364–376.
Samuelson, P. (1937). A note on measurement of utility. Review of Economic Studies, 4, 155–161.
Sanna, L. J., & Chang, E. C. (Eds.) (2006). Judgments over time: The interplay of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sanna, L. J., Parks, C. D., Chang, E. C., & Carter, S. E. (2005). The hourglass is half full or half empty: Temporal framing and the group planning fallacy. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, & Practice, 9, 173–188.
Sayette, M. A., Loewenstein, G., Kirchner, T. R., & Travis, T. (2005). Effects of smoking urge on temporal cognition. Psychology of Addictive Behavior, 19, 88–93.
Schreiber, C. A., & Kahneman, D. (2000). Determinants of the re membered utility of aversive sounds. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129, 27–42.
Schweighofer, N., Shishida, K., Han, C. E., Okamoto, Y., Tanaka, S. C., Yamawaki, S., & Doya, K. (2006). Humans can adopt optimal discounting strategy under real-time constraints. PLoS Computational Biology, 2, 1349–1356.
Simon, H. A. (1955). A behavioral model of rational choice. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 69, 99–118.
Simons, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Lacante, M. (2004). Placing motivation and future time perspective theory in a temporal perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 121–139.
Smart, R. G. (1968). Future time perspectives in alcoholics and social drinkers. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 73, 81–83.
Snodgrass, J. G. (1969). Foreperiod effects in simple reaction time: Anticipation or expectancy? Journal of Experimental Psychology Monographs, 79(3, Pt. 2), 1–19.
Staw, B. M., Sandelands, L. E., & Dutton, J. E. (1981). Threat-rigidity effects in organizational behavior: A multilevel analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26, 501–524.
Stern, E., & Koerber, S. (2000). Mentale Modele von Zeit und Zukunft. In J. Möller, B. Strauß, & S. M. Jürgensen (Eds.), Psychologie und Zukunft (pp. 15–29). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Stokes, A. F., Barnett, B. J., & Wickens, C. D. (1987). Modeling stress and bias in pilot decision-making. In Proceedings of the 20th Annual Conference of the Human Factors Association of Canada (pp. 45–48). Mississauga, ON: Human Factors Association of Canada.
Strathman, A., Gleicher, F., Boninger, D. S., & Edwards, C. S. (1994). The consideration of future consequences: Weighing immediate and distant outcomes of behavior. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 742–752.
Szelag, E., Kowalska, J., Rymarczyk, K., & Pöppel, E. (2002). Duration processing in children as determined by time reproduction: Implications for a few seconds temporal window. Acta Psychologica, 110, 1–19.
Takahashi, T., Oono, H., & Radford, M. H. B. (2008). Psychophysics of time perception and intertemporal choice models. Physica A, 387, 2066–2074.
Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2003). Temporal construal. Psychological Review, 110, 403–421.
Varey, C. A., & Kahneman, D. (1992). Experiences extended across time: Evaluation of moments and episodes. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 5, 169–185.
Wallace, H. (1956). Future time perspective in schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 52, 240–245.
Wearden, J. H. (1992). Temporal generalization in humans. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 18, 134–144.
Wearden, J. H. (2003). Applying the scalar timing model to human time psychology: Progress and challenges. In H. Helfrich (Ed.), Time and mind II: Information processing perspectives (pp. 21–39). Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber.
Wearden, J. H. (2004). Decision processes in models of timing. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis, 64, 303–317.
Wearden, J. H., Denovan, L., Fakhri, M., & Haworth, R. (1997). Scalar timing in temporal generalization in humans with longer stimulus durations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 23, 502–511.
Wearden, J. H., & Grindrod, R. (2003). Manipulation decision processes in the human scalar timing system. Behavioural Processes, 61, 47–56.
Wearden, J. H., & McShane, B. (1988). Interval production as an analogue of the peak procedure: Evidence for similarity of human and animal timing processes. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40B, 363–375.
Welch, E. (1999). The heat of the moment. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University: Department of Social and Decision Sciences.
Wickens, C. D., & Flach, J. M. (1988). Information processing. In E. Wiener & D. Nagel (Eds.), Human factors in aviation (pp. 111–155). London: Academic Press.
Wills, T. A., Sandy, J. M., & Yaeger, A. M. (2001). Time perspective and early-onset substance use: A model based on stress-coping theory. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 15, 118–125.
Wilson, J. Q., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1985). Crime and human nature. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Wittmann, M., Leland, D. S., Churan, J., & Paulus, M. P. (2007). Impaired time perception and motor timing in stimulant-dependent subjects. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 90, 183–192.
Wittmann, M., Leland, D. S., & Paulus, M. P. (2007). Time and decision making: Differential contribution of the posterior insular cortex and the striatum during a delay discounting task. Experimental Brain Research, 179, 643–653.
Yellot, J. I. (1971). Corrections for fast guessing and speed-accuracy-tradeoff in choice reaction time. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 8, 159–199.
Zakay, D. (1993). The impact of time perception processes on decision making under time stress. In O. Svenson & A. J. Maule (Eds.), Time pressure and stress in human judgment and decision making (pp. 59–72). New York: Plenum.
Zakay, D., & Wooler, S. (1984). Time pressure, training and decision effectiveness. Ergonomics, 27, 273–284.
Zaleski, Z. (1996). Future anxiety: Concept measurement and preliminary research. Personality & Individual Differences, 21, 165–174.
Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 77, 1271–1288.
Zimbardo, P. G., Keough, K. A., & Boyd, J. N. (1997). Present time perspective as a predictor of risky driving. Personality & Individual Differences, 23, 1007–1023.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This article was written as part of the “European Platform for Life Sciences, Mind Sciences, and the Humanities” initiative of the Volkswagen Foundation.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Klapproth, F. Time and decision making in humans. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 8, 509–524 (2008). https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.8.4.509
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.8.4.509