TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication
List of Contributors
Foreword - Thomas E. Lovejoy
Presentation - Rodrigo Gámez Lobo
Preface - Maarten Kappelle
Part I. Introduction
Introduction: Costa Rica’s Ecosystems: Setting the Stage
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0001
[Costa Rica;Ecology;Biogreography;Biodiversity;Ecosystem]
Due to its status as one of the most species-rich countries in the world, and its small size relative to similarly rich countries, Costa Rica may justly be considered the world’s most species-dense country. Rather than follow a technical or clinical approach with a hierarchical categorization of ecosystems, Costa Rica’s dense ecology is explored in a “journey-wise” sequence that provides familiarity and understanding of the country’s full, varied range of intergrading seascapes and landscapes. The book begins with three introductory chapters focusing on Costa Rica’s climate, geology, and soils to provide an understanding of the medium in which its ecology has developed, and then proceeds with a presentation of each of the country’s ecosystems. This introductory chapter outlines the project and organization of the book, and gives background information on the history of conservation and ecological study in Costa Rica. (pages 3 - 16)
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Part II. The Physical Environment
Climate of Costa Rica
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0002
[Costa Rica;orography;latitude;precipitation;climate change;biological diversity;temperature]
Integrated climatological research is needed to better understand the full impact of modern climate change on Costa Rican ecosystems and human society. Costa Rica’s orography, latitude, and nature as an isthmus are the main determinants of its climate. A central mountain range dividing the country into two parts of almost equal size, and other orographic systems that run parallel to the coastline and intercept air masses coming from both oceans, produce a wide variety of climatic characteristics. Consequently, 95 Climate Groups and 55 Biotic Units have been identified in the country despite its small size, ranging from the dry and very warm climate of the lowlands of Guanacaste Province to the very wet, cold climate of the Talamanca Mountain Range. The specific effects of the country’s latitudinal position as well as those of various interacting air masses and atmospheric systems are outlined. Finally, the chapter summarizes the expected effects of climate change on Costa Rica. (pages 19 - 29)
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Geology and Tectonic Geomorphology of Costa Rica: A Natural History Approach
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0003
[Costa Rica;Tectonic;Geology;Geomorphology;Fossils;Paleoenvironments;Climate Change;Pleistocene;Holocene;Natural History]
This chapter presents a synopsis of the geology of Costa Rica with an emphasis on the most recent history, particularly the Quaternary and within that the Holocene. After providing an overview of the tectonic basis for Costa Rica’s complex geology, the majority of the chapter consists of an up-to-date account of the main morphotectonic regions, summarizing the geology and geomorphology of each, and well as the results of several recent surveys of marine geology. The chapter also presents a summary of the fossil mammals and plants that have been reported as well as a discussion of paleoenvironments and climate change during the Pleistocene and Holocene. The chapter ends with a brief summary of Costa Rica’s geological history from 170 million years ago at the final separation of North and South America to 2011 with the renewed dormancy of the Arenal volcano. (pages 30 - 63)
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Soils of Costa Rica: An Agrecological Approach
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0004
[Costa Rica;Soil;Erosion;Nutrient Availability;Agroecosystems;Soil Science;Agriculture]
The variability of the soils of Costa Rica is almost as large as the number of different agroecosystems developed to match with the varied ecological niches. This chapter presents an analysis of each of these soil types, as well as the relationships that plants, animals, and human activity have with Costa Rican soil. The chapter first provides a history of national and international study of Costa Rican soil, and then continues to summarize the types of areas occupied by each major soil type. This discussion includes the mineralogical, physical, and nutritional characteristics and geographical distribution of each type of soil, as well as its relation to humans, such as the crops that planted in it and the practices that could be applied to best use it to its productive potential. The chapter further documents the effects of the mutual environmental relationships between soils and the many different types of organisms that live in and around them, which naturally leave imprints in soil formation, nutrient recycling, and environmental biodegradation of organic residues. (pages 64 - 94)
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Part III. The Pacific Ocean and Isla del Coco
Pacific Costa Rica: Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0005
[Costa Rica;Pacific Coast;conservation;ecosystem;marine;species diversity]
Costa Rica’s situation on the Central American Isthmus between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans produces a great deal of species diversity within and between the various ecosystems. This chapter presents a description the main coastal and marine ecosystems of the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, and a discussion of the relationship between these ecosystems and human activity. The first section is a brief history of marine research, followed by an overview of the state of scientific knowledge regarding the coast and descriptions of its physical conditions. The coastal and marine ecosystems are described and the main natural and anthropogenic impacts on those ecosystems are discussed. This information is leveraged to present several conservation initiatives, and propositions for the future in terms of research, management, and conservation, ultimately arguing that protection and conservation of the marine and coastal ecosystems is not only an obligation of the government, but a need and responsibility of everyone. (pages 97 - 138)
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The Gulf of Nicoya Estuarine Ecosystem
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0006
[Costa Rica;ecosystem;estuary;overfishing;mangroves;plankton;fish;conservation;trophic modelling]
The extensive hydrological connection between the Gulf of Nicoya and the watersheds draining into it gives origin to one of the most prominent ecological and geographical systems of Costa Rica. It is also one of the better known tropical estuaries worldwide. This chapter gives an overview of the general function of the estuary as a system and a description of the physical properties of its water and sediment. Further, it summarizes published results on the most important communities of the Gulf of Nicoya ecosystem, providing information on the various populations of invertebrates, vertebrates, algae, plankton, and vegetation and how these interact. The author also outlines the difficulty, importance, and development of trophic modeling systems for the improved understanding of Gulf ecosystems. Finally, the Gulf of Nicoya is considered in view of worldwide trends in the effects of human activity on estuaries, which have been degraded more than any other marine ecosystem by exploitation and pollution. Historical, current, and speculative management policies are discussed, with an emphasis on the shift from species-based to ecosystem-based conservation strategies. (pages 139 - 161)
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Isla del Coco: Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0007
[Costa Rica;Isla del coco;Research;conservation;ecosystems;coastal;marine]
Parque Nacional Isla del Coco’s isolation allows the study of phenomena as they exist when relatively unaffected by human activity, making it an important and increasingly rare natural laboratory. The island also acts as the entrance gate for Indo-Pacific organisms into the Eastern Tropical Pacific, for which reason — along with its beauty and the aforementioned research utility — it now holds the status of Natural World Heritage Site. The author presents a brief history of marine research at Isla del Coco as well as an overview of current research projects and their findings. The geology, geomorphology, and climate of the island are described, as are the island’s coastal and marine ecosystems. The author also relates the various threats that the island faces, and the conservation efforts to defend against them. Finally, gaps in our current understanding and the need for future research are discussed. Throughout, the chapter demonstrates the importance of Isla Del Coco to the world as a source of both of knowledge and of beauty. (pages 162 - 191)
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Isla del Coco: Terrestrial Ecosystems
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0008
[Costa Rica;Biodiversity;Terrestrial Ecosystems;Isla del Coco;Biota]
Biota developed as a result of those organisms that arrived at the island through active or passive transport. This chapter presents the state of knowledge on biodiversity and terrestrial ecosystems of Isla de Coco, based on an extensive review of existing information about the island and on previous publications on the island written by the author, as well as on observational field experience obtained during numerous expeditions to the insular territory. The author provides a general history of the island as related to its biodiversity and the development and change of its ecosystems, before proceeding to describe both the physical characteristics of the island, such as its geology, oceanography, and soil, and the biodiversity of its various terrestrial ecosystems. The author notes the increase in human presence on the island and the threat that to the island that this creates, and, having reviewed the literature, ends with a discussion of the necessary focus of future conservation efforts and research. (pages 192 - 244)
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Part IV. The Northern Pacific Dry Lowlands
The Northern Pacific Lowland Seaonal Dry Forests of Guanacaste and Peninsula de Nicoya
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0009
[Costa Rica;lowland;dry forests;guanacaste;nicoya;conservation;deforestation;biodiversity]
This chapter presents the physical characteristics, biodiversity, and history of tropical dry forests in Costa Rica’s northern Pacific lowlands. First, the authors describe the region’s climate, geology, geomorphology and soils. The authors then give an overview of the different vegetation types and their characteristic plant species for each of the three main sub-regions: 1) Northern Guanacaste and the Península de Santa Elena; 2) Central Guanacaste, the Río Tempisque Basin and Palo Verde Wetland; and 3) The Península de Nicoya. Further, characteristic species of different types or animals are given, and various interspecies interactions are discussed. Finally the chapter discusses forest conversion, secondary succession, and restoration. The authors give a history of land use, deforestation, and biodiversity loss, and continue with a history of recent efforts at reforestation and forest restoration. The chapter ends with a discussion of effective conservation, management, and sustainability strategies. (pages 247 - 289)
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Biodiversity Conservation History and Future in Costa Rica: The Case of Area de Conservacion Guanacaste (ACG)
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0010
[Costa Rica;conservation;guanacaste;dry forest;deforestation;biodiversity]
The only “natural” wildland ecosystem likely to survive in northwestern Costa Rica is dry forestry of the Área de Conservacion Guanacaste (ACG), since all that remains in the region has or will be converted to agroindustry or tourism development, as is the case with most of the remainder of non-explicitly protected wildland in Costa Rica. Although dry forests used to make up about a quarter of Costa Rica’s forests, nearly all of them have been thoroughly converted to pasture, cultivation, and urbanity. The authors first give a geological history of the ACG, and then a history human impact from the first humans between 11,000 and 25,000 years ago to the present, with an emphasis on the changes brought about by human use of the area since the 1500s. The chapter provides an outline of the dry forest climate in the area and the ways in which the forest changes seasonally, such as the seasonality of insect migration, plant reproduction, and plant-animal interactions. Finally, the authors give an overview of natural and human-directed dry forest restoration, and a description of the ways in which restored forest may differ from the area’s original ecosystems. (pages 290 - 342)
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Part V. The Central and Southern Pacific Seasonally Moist Lowlands and Central Valley
The Central Pacific Seasonal Forests of Puntarenas and the Central Valley
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0011
[Costa Rica;moist forest;Puntarenas;seasonal;pacific;biodiversity]
Costa Rica’s Central Pacific region forms a transitional zone between the tropical dry forests of the Northern Pacific region and the tropical moist forests of the Southern Pacific region, and as a result it includes species considered characteristic of both areas, as well as a high degree of endemism. The authors first provide a brief description of the region’s geography and varied climate, which is followed by an overview of the ecosystems of various areas in the region, including a description of vegetation and flora, fungal diversity, and the broad range of animals of different types. Finally, this chapter makes the case for conservation in the Fila Chonta region, the last extensive patch of unprotected forest that remains in this area, as it would provide a protected corridor for migration and the area’s ecosystems are not well understood. (pages 345 - 359)
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The Southern Pacific Lowland Evergreen Moist Forest of the Osa Region
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0012
[Costa Rica;osa;conservation;National Park;corcovado;Southern Pacific]
The formation of Corcovado Park meant saving the Pacific Lowland Rainforest of Costa Rica and, in many ways, it represented a keystone for building the country’s national park system. In this chapter, the authors describe the physical characteristics of the area — such as climate, geology, and soil — as well as its flora and fauna, providing both a broad overview and specific representative case studies. Further, this chapter provides a historical account of the area starting from the first effects of human use, describing how a relatively intact fragment of the Southern Pacific region’s once extensive forests was identified and set aside and how it continues to survive in the face of intense political, social, and economic pressure. While some of these details are particular to the Osa, there are lessons and themes that apply to saving similar ecosystems across the planet. In particular, this history demonstrates the paramount importance of the proper integration of community participation, ecotourism, and science. (pages 360 - 412)
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Part VI. The Moist and Clouded Highlands
The Montane Cloud Forests of the Volcanic Cordileras
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0013
[Costa Rica;Cordillera;cloud forest;montane;biodiversity;topography;Tilaran;Guanacaste]
The Cordillera de Tilarán and the Cordillera de Guanacaste create a landscape with dramatic relief, strong climatic contrasts, and extraordinary biodiversity. On the fertile volcanic soils of these Cordilleras, biodiversity in the flora and fauna, community composition, forest structure, and ecosystem function depend in large part on variation in dry season cloud moisture inputs. The authors provide a biogeographic framework emphasizing the topographically dictated climatic constraints that underlie the biological richness of northern Costa Rica’s montane forests. The critical importance of topography and elevation is demonstrated by the life zones they create, which are not strictly defined but include distinctive habitats and species. The chapter includes a description of the richness and diversity of plant and animal species, and of the various ways in which species interact, both competitively and symbiotically. More broadly, the authors give a high level overview of the function and dynamics of the region’s ecosystems, including a discussion of nutrient cycling, trophic structure, and energy flow. The chapter ends with a history of land use and conservation in the region. (pages 415 - 450)
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The Montane Cloud Forests of the Cordilera de Talamanca
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0014
[Costa Rica;cloud forests;montane;Cordillera;Talamanca;ecosystem]
The tropical evergreen cloud forests on the slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica’s southern highlands is of vital importance both as a source of drinking and irrigation water to the main cities in the Valle Central and as a bastion of many endemic species. In this chapter, the authors first summarize the current knowledge of the Cordillera de Talamanca’s physical characteristics, including climate, geology, and geomorphology. This is followed by an overview of biodiversity -- both at the species level and the community and ecosystem level -- of plants, animals, and fungi, with an emphasis on the three vegetation zones between the lower boundary of the premontane forests at 500 m to the upper limit of the upper montane oak forests at 3,100 m. The chapter provides a high-level outline of the functioning and dynamics of the ecosystems described, including forest structure and water and nutrient cycling. Finally, the authors provide a summary of the history of land use and conservation in the region. (pages 451 - 491)
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The Paramo Ecoysystem of Costa Rica's Highlands
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0015
[Costa Rica;paramo;alpine;ecosystem;isthmus;biodiversity]
The isthmian páramos (grass- or shrub-dominated ecosystems that occupy the cool and wet upper slopes of tropical mountains at alpine elevations above tree line and below the snow limit) of Costa Rica and Panama form part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, one of the 25 most important such areas on Earth. The authors first provide a history of scientific exploration of Costa Rican páramos, which remained largely unexplored before the arrival of Spanish colonists due to the belief of the indigenous peoples of the area that the páramo-covered peaks were sacred. The authors give a description the physical environment that supports the páramos, including climate, geology, soil, and limnology, followed by a quaternary history of the area, emphasizing the effects of glaciers and fires on the environment. The authors then discuss biodiversity on the species and ecosystem level, from protists and fungi to plants and animals. The chapter ends with a summary of land use history and recent fire dynamics in the area, as well the status of its conservation. (pages 492 - 524)
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Part VII. The Wet Caribbean Lowlands
The Caribbean Lowland Evergreen Moist and Wet Forests
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0016
[Costa Rica;Caribbean lowlands;geography;geology;forestry;conservation]
Geography has played a critical role in Costa Rica’s Caribbean lowlands with respect to initial origin of the landmass, climate, patterns of vegetation, sites of early human settlement, colonial expansion, the construction of access roads, colonial and postcolonial exploitation of natural resources, conservation efforts, and current political and environmental issues. In this chapter, the authors offer a brief overview of these topics, encapsulate major biological research efforts in the Caribbean lowlands over the past 50 years, and look into the future—always within the framework of geography at different scales. First, the authors provide a historical overview of the Costa Rican Caribbean lowlands, a region which here includes Province of Limón, plus portions of the Provinces of Heredia, Alajuela, and Guanacaste, from 70 million years ago to the present. The authors then summarize the physical environment, giving descriptions of climate, weather, and soils in the region, as well as the biodiversity in plant and animal life, and the interactions therein. The chapter ends with a discussion of the relationship between humans and nature in the region, including effects of agriculture and pesticides and the efforts of conservationists. (pages 527 - 588)
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Part VIII. The Caribbean Sea and Shore
The Caribbean Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0017
[Costa Rica;research;conservation;Caribbean;ecosystems;coastal;marine]
The coastal and marine ecosystems of the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica consist of coastal lagoons, mangrove forests, beaches, rocky intertidal outcrops, seagrass beds, coral reefs, subtidal hard and soft bottoms, and open waters. In this chapter the author presents a historical overview of scientific research in the region, followed by a review of the current state of knowledge. He provides a description of the region's physical environment and each of its ecosystems, and concludes with a discussion of the threats and the conservation initiatives relevant to Costa Rica’s Caribbean coast. This chapter argues that Costa Rican Caribbean coastal and marine ecosystems are species rich, economically important for the local communities, and key for the sustainable development of the region, but are being threatened by natural and anthropogenic factors, and that human disturbances must therefore be eliminated or at least minimized to ensure a healthy future for the coastal and marine ecosystems along Costa Rica’s Caribbean shores. (pages 591 - 618)
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Part IX. The Rivers, Lakes, and Wetlands
Rivers of Costa Rica
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0018
[Costa Rica;tropical rivers;isthmus;periphyton;species interactions;ecosystem]
Although our understanding of the ecosystems of tropical rivers is limited compared to that of temperate rivers, the former having ecological and hydrological characteristics that are wide-ranging and often very different from those of the latter, Costa Rica stands out among tropical countries for the amount of information on rivers that is available. This chapter reviews the current state of our growing understanding of Costa Rican river ecosystems. First, the authors discuss riverine plants with a focus on algal periphyton and riverine animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates. The authors then describe species interactions in rivers ranging from mutualism, competition and predation to frugivory and seed dispersal by fishes and ecosystem functioning and dynamics on a broader level with an emphasis on biogeochemistry, nutrient cycling, primary productivity, and decomposition. Finally, the authors discuss human influences on the Costa Rican river system — focusing on the environmental effects of hydropower, land use changes, water withdrawals and invasive species — and stress the importance of maintaining the biointegrity of rivers for research needs and human survival as the rivers quickly change as a result of natural and anthropogenic influences. (pages 621 - 655)
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Lakes of Costa Rica
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0019
[Costa Rica;lake formation;ecosystem;aquatic biodiversity;freshwater;species]
Costa Rica has an abundance of lakes, distributed from sea level to the nation’s highest peaks and within each of the major terrestrial ecosystems and exemplifying nearly every natural process of lake formation, including volcanic activity, fluvial dynamics, glaciation, and landslides. This chapter focuses on permanent, predominantly freshwater bodies of all sizes. The chapter begins with a short history of research on Costa Rican lakes and a consideration of lake distribution in the country as a whole. The authors then present a regional survey of Costa Rican lakes, following the classification of terrestrial ecosystems used throughout the book. For each of the seven principal terrestrial ecosystem regions the authors describe the common mechanisms of lake formation, and highlight two to five lakes that are particularly well known, including information about characteristic species and ecosystem functioning. The authors draw information both from their own published work and observations by themselves and others on aquatic biology and other lake characteristics, and summarize the contributions that paleolimnological studies have made to understanding ecosystem and environmental history in each region. (pages 656 - 682)
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Bogs, Marshes, and Swamps of Costa Rica
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0020
[Costa Rica;conservation;marsh;swamp;bog;fauna;palm;forest]
Costa Rica has a high diversity of freshwater wetlands, ranging from the highland peat bogs in the mountainous Talamanca’s and the marshes of the Pacific lowlands to the often seasonal swamps dominated by palms and other forest trees thriving along the coasts. However, most of the available information on these wetlands is restricted to descriptive studies in which plant-species lists and forest structure information dominate, with studies on their ecological or functional aspects mostly absent. When faunistic elements are listed, most fauna cited is not restricted to marsh or swamp ecosystems, and even knowledge on the total extent of these ecosystem is highly fragmentary and controversial. In this chapter, the author provides a review of our best understanding of Costa Rica’s marshes, highland bogs, palm swamps and forest swamps. He provides general descriptions, including geographical information and size estimations, as well as an overview of the various ecosystems, with an emphasis on the species of flora and fauna that are unique to each one. The chapter ends with a discussion of wetland conservation and the threats that these ecosystems face, using the history of the Palo Verde marshes as a case study to demonstrate the challenges of wetland restoration. (pages 683 - 706)
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Conclusion
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226121642.003.0021
[Costa Rica;ecosystems;lowlands;highlands;wetlands;Paramos;cloud;rain;dry;forests]
The present volume, Costa Rican Ecosystems, offers an extensive panorama of the main terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems that inhabit the small tropical country of Costa Rica. In this closing chapter, a summary of Costa Rica’s main ecosystems is given, using the preceding chapters as its foundation. It tries to offer the reader a synopsis of Costa Rica’s overwhelming diversity of life at the highest organizational level: the ecosystem. Hence, this chapter touches briefly upon alpha, beta and gamma levels of biodiversity, and points out some of the main ecological processes that act at the interface of species and their environment. The previous chapters are distilled, resulting in an outline of the most important features of the marine, lowland, highland, wetland ecosystems that are more deeply explored in their corresponding chapters. (pages 707 - 722)
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Acronyms
Subject Index
Systematic Index of Common Names
Systematic Index of Scientific Names
