8. Low-Carbon Transport in India

Delhi Metro has a daily ridership of 2.6 million passengers (DMRC 2014b). A recent study has reported that about 0.3 million vehicles have been taken off the road due to the introduction of the Delhi Metro (CRRI 2011). Expansion of the metro network delivered air quality benefits of reduced NO₂, CO, and PM_2.5 (Goel and Gupta 2014). In 2011, shifting of commuters from road-based transportation to metro rail in Delhi saved 1320 tons of NOx, 107 tons of particulate matter, and over 3880 tons of CO₂ (Sharma et al. 2014).

This is the first urban rail CDM project globally and has achieved significant reductions in GHG emissions. This is also a landmark project for the country as it has already registered three successful projects under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) (DMRC 2014a). These include the carbon credits from regenerative braking, the Modal Shift Project, and the Energy Efficiency Project under CDM and Gold Standard which are expected to reduce approximately 570,000 tCO₂ annually. The project saved 90,000 tons of CO₂ from regenerative braking between 2004 and 2007 and continues to claim credit. Increasing ridership, modal shift, and energy conservation practices will deliver further mitigation benefits in the future (Sharma et al. 2014).

In response to the success of DMRC, the Government of India has submitted the MRTS Program of Activities (PoA) to The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The PoA will cover a series of rail-based MRTS projects (like metro rail, LRT, monorail) implemented across India. The objective of MRTS PoA by DMRC is to promote implementation of mass transit systems to reduce GHG emissions and support with implementation for the construction of an MRTS projects by providing fast-track carbon funding and risk-free registration of future projects (UNFCCC 2014).

Khanna et al. (2011) carried out scenario analysis to demonstrate that a rail-dominated mass transit system in Delhi can deliver 61 % reduction in energy use compared to 31 % reduction for a bus-dominated system. A cost-benefit analysis of the Delhi Metro calculated a 22 % social rate of return, a financial rate of return of 17 %, and an economic rate of return of 23.9 % including gains from air pollution reduction (Murty et al. 2006). The study reported that Delhi Metro generated benefits to the stakeholders including citizens and government; however, other transport providers suffered from income losses (ibid).

The implementation of the Delhi Metro has resulted in social impacts including relocation of people and reduced accessibility of the relocated low-income households (Tiwari 2011). The DMRC faces challenges due to land acquisition issues. Metro infrastructure projects are being planned or are under construction in nearly 20 cities—several of which will follow the Delhi model. It is crucial to address issues of equity and development to minimize adverse social impacts during project implementation. An additional concern is the vulnerability of cities and infrastructures to the risks from climate variability, especially extreme weather events (Garg et al. 2013; Pathak et al. 2014). These considerations should be factored in as far as possible into planning of long-term transport infrastructure.

The key lessons emerging from the Delhi Metro case study are as follows: (1) low-carbon mobility projects can leverage financing through the international carbon market, (2) large infrastructure projects provide a good opportunity for technology cooperation between a developed and a developing country, (3) public transport projects, if implemented effectively, can deliver mitigation benefits and lead to environmental co-benefits from reduced congestion and improved air quality, and (4) large infrastructure projects should make all efforts to minimize adverse social impacts during planning and implementation.

Following the recommendation of the Auto Fuel Policy (GoI, 2003), implementation emission and fuel quality standards have been progressively modified in India. Euro I equivalent norms were introduced in the year 2000 starting with 11 identified cities including metros and subsequently implemented across the country. Subsequently, Euro II and Euro III equivalent norms were also introduced across the country in the year 2003 and 2005. India’s Auto Fuel Policy report brought about significant air quality benefits compared to the “no-policy” scenario.

A detailed assessment showed that actions outlined in the policy were largely implemented in accordance with the policy roadmap (ICCT 2013a). There has been a reduction in sulfur content in gasoline (from 2000 ppm to 150 ppm) and diesel (from 10,000 ppm to 350 ppm). In selected 20 cities, sulfur content has been brought down to 50 ppm. As a result, SO₂ levels have come down significantly in Indian cities and remain well within WHO standards (CPCB 2012). Other improvements include a reduction in benzene levels in gasoline and increase in the use of zero-sulfur CNG and LPG in buses and auto-rickshaws. A recent study reported a significant decrease in PM₁₀ vehicular emissions throughout the previous decade and a slowing of growth of NOx emissions. This resulted in 21,500 deaths avoided from reduced PM_2.5 emissions (ICCT 2013a). The clear vision, process of implementation, and success of the AFP 2003 helped replicate and upscale Auto Fuel Policy Vision 2025.

Despite the progressive vision and roadmap and successful implementation of the policy, India’s fuel quality and emission norms still lag behind international standards, and air quality remains a serious problem in all parts of the country. Efforts are required to advance the implementation of BS IV and V than scheduled in the Policy Vision of 2025. A study has shown that accelerating implementation of stringent fuel quality and vehicle emission standards in India will avoid approximately 48,500 premature deaths. This would impose an additional cost of USD 45 billion; however, the economic benefits of these avoided deaths would amount to USD 90 billion, making a strong case for advancing the roadmap (ICCT 2013b).

When the Auto Fuel Policy Committee was formed in 2000, the focus was to address air quality issues in the country. However, a decade later, energy security and climate change are simultaneous national priority issues. Recently, the government has proposed fuel economy standards for cars starting 2017 (BEE 2014). According to this draft proposal, fuel economy of cars will improve by 10 % in 2017 and 15 % by 2020. The Auto Fuel Policy Roadmap 2025 can consider conjoint mitigation of local pollutants and GHG emissions. The key lessons from the case study are as follows: (1) clear vision and targets at the national level were important factors in successful implementation; (2) a phase-wise implementation roadmap taking into account existing technical, institutional, and financial considerations; (3) consideration of stakeholders’ concerns; and (4) future policies can aim for conjoint mitigation of local air pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions.

The Ahmedabad Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) network has grown rapidly over the years and now operates a 52.5 km network with another 36 km under planning. The ridership started from 18,000 trips per day and has currently reached 0.1 million trips per day. In addition to increased ridership and revenue, the BRTS has resulted in other co-benefits including reduced travel time and other environmental benefits (NIUA 2014). Ahmedabad BRTS has improved mobility choices and reduced travel time (Rogat et al. 2015). The system has led to a reduction in CO₂ emissions and at the same time delivering social and economic benefits through enhanced mobility (UNFCCC 2015). The success of Ahmedabad BRTS encouraged several cities to implement BRTS based on the Ahmedabad model.

A modal shift from private to public transport at lower cost can be facilitated by making public transport more attractive with a comprehensive plan that facilitates intermodal integration (Bubeck et al. 2014). The construction of two metro corridors in the city is commenced, the first phase of which is expected to initiate operations in 2018. Efforts are under way to integrate the networks of BRTS, metro rail, and local busway system in the city (Fig. 8.2). Ahmedabad Metro, though planned later, will be integrated with BRTS, and both BRTS and metro form an integral part of the Ahmedabad Urban Development Plan of 2021. The corridors are planned to ensure connectivity and coverage across the city. The routes for the local bus systems are now being planned for these to complement the BRTS network. BRTS is now integrated in the local and regional development plans looking at transit corridors to ensure wider coverage (AUDA 2015). The project is among the most successful public transport projects implemented on a public-private partnership model.

Despite several successful initiatives, BRTS implementation in India has experienced challenges and replication. Key challenges include lack of ownership of the system by the planning and implementing agencies, reluctance from private vehicle owners to share road space, and inadequate clarity in implementation (Mahadevia et al. 2013a). It was observed that BRTS systems fail to benefit the urban poor due to flaws in design and fare structure. While emission reductions achieved are modest, the system has potential to bring about sizable mitigation benefits. Evaluation of BRTS projects should be done in a slightly longer time frame as impacts may not be evident during initial years. Challenges of attracting private transport users, if overcome, can make the BRTS an attractive option. This will require supporting measures including pricing policies for private motorized vehicle users and supporting infrastructure including feeder systems and parking facilities at stations. For BRTS to become a best practice, efforts will have to bring in social equity by enhancing infrastructure for non-motorized transport along BRTS corridors, introduce measures to facilitate modal shift from private modes, and integrate the BRTS with other public transport systems in the city (Mahadevia et al. 2013b). Inclusiveness will depend on understanding the mobility needs and capacities of the users and integrating these into the plan. Planning of BRTS projects should be based on a comprehensive assessment to include all sections of the population, their travel patterns, and mode choices based on age, gender, and economic status.

The toolkit is a comprehensive document as it integrates multiple objectives of environmental quality, inclusiveness, gender balance, and emission mitigation. This is also a unique initiative at the national level aimed to enable subnational transport plans. The process involved active stakeholder engagement by involving experts, city officials, and other stakeholders and incorporating these suggestions into the final document. The process also included a review of all existing documents and policies including government reports, reports of the expert committees and groups on urban transport of the 11th and 12th five-year plans, national missions, guidelines and codes, and global case studies on transport plans.

The methodology can highlight strategies and projects for implementation in the short term, medium term, and long term allowing cities to integrate these within the overall plans (UNEP 2015). This will generate a common and comparable database of cities on transport indicators that will further facilitate adoption by a number of cities especially smaller cities. In addition, a robust methodology will enable cities to develop proposals for funding including international climate finance.

Historically, Indian railways had dominated the inland movement of goods. Over time, economic growth led to a significant demand for freight transport; however, rail transport infrastructure did not meet the growing demand resulting in a growing share of road transport in overall freight transport (RITES 2009). A common corridor for passenger and freight resulted in high transaction time and costs due from inefficient operations. The modal shift from rail to road is not favorable given the efficiency of rail in terms of energy and CO₂ emissions. The dedicated corridor for freight transport will deliver emission reductions from modal shift and additionally from increased efficiency of movement. In addition, India will be able to leverage global economic opportunities through better internal connectivity between centers and ports. This will facilitate industrial development along the corridor generating significant jobs in small towns and villages along the route. The case study highlights that large transport infrastructure projects have major impact on CO₂ emissions. A strong case for replication of freight corridors is the additional dimension of sustainability from simultaneous environmental and development benefits for the country.

The NEMMP is a good starting point to give an impetus to the country’s manufacturing sector, enhance research in electric vehicles, and upgrade infrastructure, all of which will be instrumental in the penetration of electric vehicles in the country. The policy sets the direction and signals to manufacturers including private players.

The NEMMP is a comprehensive policy that will facilitate green growth by enabling environmental innovation and facilitating the development of a competitive domestic market for electric vehicles, green jobs, and local air quality benefits. By laying down actions in a phase-wise manner, it sets down initial direction and sets long-term targets for scaling up.

EVs are at a relatively initial stage in India. Scaling up EV penetration in India and making these competitive vis-à-vis conventional vehicles will require financial incentives for electric vehicles, improved infrastructures for charging and other local incentives (Shukla et al. 2014). Supportive and enabling policies have the potential to increase the share of electric two-wheelers from 40 to 100 % and electric cars to 40 % and reduce oil demand by 39 Mtoe. EVs will require upfront investments; however, savings from the reduced oil demand as a result of shift to electric mobility will far exceed the support provided, thereby making this economically viable.