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2022 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

Managing Religious Law in a Secular State: The Case of the Muslims of Western Thrace

verfasst von : Vassiliki Koumpli

Erschienen in: Normativity and Diversity in Family Law

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Diversity of both nationality and religion is currently a reality in Greece. This reality has no impact on the Greek legal system, which in principle applies without distinction to all Greek citizens and all persons residing in Greece. However, the exceptional recognition of the direct application of religious law and jurisdiction—that is, application without reference to the existing general set of conflict of law rules—to personal status matters of the Muslim minority of Western Thrace has given rise to important concerns regarding the applicable legislation and its impact on the Greek legal order in the context of the current international environment, which provides enhanced protection of human rights. This paper provides a succinct illustration of the management of religious law by a secular state, Greece, as shown in the particular case of this Muslim minority, also with reference to the ad hoc ECtHR judgment in Molla Sali v Greece.

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Fußnoten
1
According to information available on the website of the Hellenic Statistical Authority (www.​statistics.​gr) based on the results of the latest census (2011), the resident population of Greece is 10,816,286, of whom 9,904,286 have Greek citizenship. 199,121 residents are citizens of other EU countries, 708,054 are citizens of non-EU countries and 4825 are without citizenship or have no specified citizenship. As regards religion, Greece is a Christian state. An estimated 96% of the population belongs to the Eastern Greek Orthodox Church. There is a small community of Roman Catholics (0.5%), and an even smaller one of Protestants (0.2%). There is also a small number (2325) of Uniates (Greek (Byzantine) Catholics). In the northeastern part of the country (Thrace), there is a small minority population of Muslims (1.24%, about 140,000 people); the Muslims of Western Thrace are homogenous neither ethnically (50% are of Turkish origin, 35% are Pomaks and 15% are Roma) nor religiously (nearly 90% are Sunnis, whereas the rest are Sufi, and more particularly Bektashi). There also exists a small Jewish population (0.05%). Smaller groups of almost every kind of religion and sect live around the country: Jehovah’s Witnesses, Scientologists etc. See Pollis (1992), pp. 171–195; U.S. Department of State (2006); Tsaoussi and Zervogianni (2008), p. 215; Assimakopoulou (2014), p. 731.
 
2
Jewish communities in Greece are characterized as legal entities of public law and are governed by the provisions of Law 2456/1920 [On Jewish communities. Government Gazette A 173] granting them a kind of self-administration in many matters. Law 147/1914 [On the applicable legislation to the annexed countries and their judicial organization. Government Gazette A 25] had already provided that the substantive law regulating the formation and the dissolution of marriages of Jews was Jewish religious law, whereas state courts had jurisdiction over the relevant disputes. Article 4 of Law 2456/1920 transferred jurisdiction over all Jews in Greece to the Beth Din, the rabbinical court of Thessaloniki. After the Holocaust, which decreased the Jewish population drastically, and the enactment of the New Greek Civil Code in 1946, this provision was abolished through Article 6 of the Introductory Law to the Civil Code [Mandatory Law 2783/1941]. Subsequent Law 1029/1946 [Regulation of marital relationships of Jews. Government Gazette A 79] made an effort to preserve this regime, providing for the application of Jewish religious law to issues concerning engagements, the conditions for marriage, the dissolution of marriage and the ceremony of halitsa. The application of this law, however, entailed interpretation implications that ought to be resolved by a decision of Areios Pagos (the Supreme Civil Court of Greece). Jews chose not to bring the issue to Areios Pagos, tacitly agreeing, thus, to be governed by the Civil Code and be subjected to Greek state courts in disputes regarding marriage formation and dissolution. Nevertheless, the jurisdiction of the Beth Din still applies to Jews who are citizens of other states with legislation recognizing the validity of Jewish religious law as well as to Greek Jews, who, after having their divorce issued by a state court, may apply to the Beth Din for the spiritual dissolution of their marriage. To date, there is no reported case law or other information on relevant matters, as this is of limited practical application. See in this respect Papastathis (1998), p. 48; Assimakopoulou (2014), pp. 738–739.
 
3
See, for instance, in English, Papastathis (1998), Tsaoussi and Zervogianni (2008), Tsitselikis (2012–2013), Assimakopoulou (2014), Tsavousoglou (2015), and in French, Roucounas (1981), Tsourkas (1981–1982). The most important publications in Greek include the following: Bedermacher-Gerousis (1977), Tsoukalas (1988), Minaides (1990), Georgoulis (1993), Kotzambasi (2001), Papassiopi-Passia (2001), Tsitselikis (2001), Tsoukalas (2002), Kotzambasi (2003), Ktistakis (2006, 2007), Papadopoulou (2012), Pantelidou (2013), Kotzambasi (2014), Sakaloglou (2015).
 
4
ECtHR, Molla Sali v Greece (application no. 20452/14) Grand Chamber (19 December 2018) HUDOC. The Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights to which the case was assigned announced on 8 June 2017 that it has relinquished jurisdiction in favor of the Grand Chamber. The hearing at the Grand Chamber took place on 6 December 2017.
 
5
See Gallala-Arndt (2017), pp. 1020, 1023.
 
6
As to the millet status, see Gallala-Arndt (2017), p. 1022.
 
7
Ratified by Law ΠΛΖ’/1882.
 
8
Law ΑΛΗ’ of 22 June 1882 [On spiritual leaders and Muslim communities].
 
9
Ratified by Law ΔΣΙΓ’/1913.
 
10
See note 2.
 
11
Law 2345/1920 [On the temporary chief mufti and muftis of the Muslims of the State and on the management of the property of Muslim communities. Government Gazette A 148].
 
12
Law 1920/1991 [Ratification of the Legislative Order of 24 December 1990 “On Muslim Religious Officers”. Government Gazette A 182].
 
13
Ratified by Legislative Decree of 25 August 1923 [Government Gazette A 238].
 
14
Applying this provision, Turkey abolished religious law in 1926. See Sect. 3.1.
 
15
See Sect. 2.2.1 on the judicial authority of the mufti.
 
16
Law 4511/2018 [On Muslim religious officers. Government Gazette A 2].
 
17
Presidential Decree 456/1984 [Civil Code. Government Gazette A 164].
 
18
Presidential Decree 52/2019 [Procedural rules governing cases falling within the jurisdiction of the muftis of Thrace. Establishment, organization and functioning of the division of cases falling within the jurisdiction of the mufti in the Mufti Offices of Thrace. Government Gazette A 90]. Presidential Decree 52/2019 was upheld by judgment of the Hellenic supreme administrative court, i.e. Council of State (Plenary Session) 1822/2020. NOMOS, which rejected an application for its annulment.
 
19
As to the amendments regarding the judicial authority of the mufti, see Sect. 2.2.1.
 
20
This control of constitutionality was introduced for the first time by Law 1920/1991.
 
21
According to Ktistakis (2006), p. 158, from the enactment of Law 1920/1991 until 2006, the civil courts, which are supposed to examine whether the mufti’s decisions are incompatible with the Constitution, denied enforceability in only 11 cases out of 2679.
 
22
Council of State 1333/2001. (2001) Armenopoulos p. 1263; Council of State 466/2003. NOMOS; Council of State (Plenary Session) 1822/2020. NOMOS. See also Matthias (2007), p. 427 et seq., as well as the legal opinions of the Legal Council of the State No 390/1953 and No 112/2009, available at www.​nsk.​gr.
 
23
Areios Pagos 231/1932. (1932) Themis p. 622; Areios Pagos 105/1937. (1937) Themis p. 641; Areios Pagos 14/1938. (1938) Themis p. 328; Areios Pagos (Plenary Session) 322/1960. (1961) Nomiko Vima p. 1121; Areios Pagos (Plenary Session) 738/1967. (1968) Nomiko Vima p. 381; Areios Pagos 1723/1980. (1981) Nomiko Vima p. 1217 etc.
 
24
National Committee on Human Rights, Decision on marriages of minors celebrated by the Mufti in Greece (February 2005), www.​nchr.​gr/​images/​pdf/​apofaseis/​meionothtes/​apofasi_​peri_​telesis_​gamwn_​anilikwn_​paidiwn_​apo_​moufti2004.​pdf.
 
25
Kotzambasi (2001), pp. 28–29; Tsitselikis (2001), p. 593; Kotzambasi (2003), pp. 70–71; Tsaoussi and Zervogianni (2008), p. 214; Sakaloglou (2015), p. 259.
 
26
Areios Pagos 1041/2000. (2001) Elliniki Dikaiosyni p. 429. See also the legal opinion of the Legal Council of the State No 347/2003, available at www.​nsk.​gr.
 
27
Areios Pagos 1723/1980. (1981) Nomiko Vima p. 1217.
 
28
Areios Pagos 105/1937. (1937) Themis p. 641.
 
29
Areios Pagos 738/1967. (1968) Nomiko Vima p. 381.
 
30
See among others Sakaloglou (2015), p. 259.
 
31
Ktistakis (2006), p. 35 et seq.
 
32
See among others Kotzambasi (2001), pp. 17–19; Kotzambasi (2003), pp. 64–66; Tsaoussi and Zervogianni (2008), p. 213; Kotzambasi (2014), pp. 806–807, with further references. See also Single-Member Court of First Instance of Thiva 405/2000. (2001) Dike p. 1097 = (2001) Nomiko Vima p. 661. This view has been adopted by Council of State (Plenary Session) 1822/2020. NOMOS.
 
33
Single-Member Court of First Instance of Thessaloniki 19989/2014. (2015) Armenopoulos p. 989.
 
34
Tsaoussi and Zervogianni (2008), p. 214.
 
35
Single-Member Court of First Instance of Xanthi 1623/2003. (2004) Armenopoulos p. 366; Single-Member Court of First Instance of Xanthi 66/2017. NOMOS.
 
36
Court of Appeal of Thrace 119/2006. (2006) Armenopoulos p. 1565.
 
37
Court of Appeal of Thrace 356/1995. (1996) Armenopoulos p. 41 = (1996) Elliniki Dikaiosyni p. 1368.
 
38
Court of Appeal of Thrace 7/2001. (2001) Armenopoulos p. 692; Single-Member Court of First Instance of Chalkis 1057/2000. NOMOS; Single-Member Court of First Instance of Chalkis 3136/2007. (2008) Elliniki Dikaiosyni p. 1536.
 
39
Areios Pagos 2138/2013. (2014) Chronika Idiotikou Dikaiou p. 370; Court of Appeal of Thrace 489/2011 (unreported); Single-Member Court of First Instance of Xanthi 102/2012. NOMOS. See Pantelidou (2013), p. 291 et seq.
 
40
Kotzambasi (2003), p. 70; Ktistakis (2006), p. 87 et seq.; Pantelidou (2013), pp. 300–301. At this point, it should be noted that the direct implementation of Islamic law as analyzed above is not excluded by the provisions of the Civil Code regarding relations between spouses and divorce. In fact, according to Articles 1416 and 1446 CC, the provisions of the code on relations between spouses and divorce shall apply irrespective of the religion or dogma of the two spouses and the form of the marriage ceremony (civil or religious) unless otherwise provided.
 
41
ECtHR, Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v Turkey (applications nos 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 et al.) Grand Chamber (13 February 2003) HUDOC.
 
42
See note 4.
 
43
The two sisters’ claims were dismissed by the Greek court at first instance (Multi-Member Court of First Instance of Rodopi 50/2010, unreported) and on appeal (Court of Appeal of Thrace 392/2011. NOMOS). The Thrace Court of Appeal found that the decision by the deceased, a Greek Muslim and a member of the Thrace religious minority, to request a notary to draw up a public will, determining for himself the persons to whom he wished to leave his property and the manner in which this was done, was an expression of his statutory right to have his estate disposed of after his death under the same conditions as other Greek citizens. However, Areios Pagos quashed that judgment on the grounds that questions of inheritance within the Muslim minority should be dealt with by the mufti in accordance with the rules of Islamic law. It therefore remitted the case to a different bench of the Court of Appeal for new consideration (Areios Pagos 1862/2013. (2014) Nomiko Vima p. 887). The Court of Appeal ruled that the law applicable to the deceased’s estate was Islamic religious law and that the public will in question did not produce any legal effects (Court of Appeal of Thrace 183/2015, unreported). Following an appeal on points of law by Mrs. Molla Sali on 8 February 2016, Areios Pagos dismissed such appeal on 6 April 2017 (Areios Pagos 556/2017. (2018) Elliniki Dikaiosyni p. 441).
 
44
ECtHR, Molla Sali v Greece, para 141, see note 4.
 
45
ECtHR, Molla Sali v Greece, paras 142 et seq., see note 4.
 
46
See, however, among others, comments by Jayme and Nordmeier (2019), as regards minority protection concerns, and Koumoutzis and Papastylianos (2019) and Rokas (2019), pp. 455–457, proposing the application of Article 8 ECHR.
 
47
By contrast with ECtHR, Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v Turkey, see note 41.
 
48
See also Koumoutzis and Papastylianos (2019).
 
49
Gallala-Arndt (2017), pp. 1020, 1023.
 
50
Ibid.
 
51
Ibid.
 
52
Only France applied some Sharia provisions to citizens of Mayotte, one of its overseas territories, until 2011.
 
53
Gallala-Arndt (2017), p. 1024. As to such legislation, see in detail Sabuni and Wiedensohler (1994) (for Syria); Ebert and Hefny (2008) (for Egypt); Nelle (2013) (for Morocco); Salama (2012) (for Jordan); Schönberger (2012) (for Tunisia).
 
54
See Sect. 2.1.5.
 
55
See Bedermacher-Gerousis (1977), p. 639; Ktistakis (2006), p. 104; Tsaoussi and Zervogianni (2008), pp. 211–212.
 
56
Family and succession are regulated by the Civil Code. In addition, Law 3719/2008 [Reforms concerning family, children, the society and other provisions. Government Gazette A 241] introduced civil partnership between opposite-sex couples. After the ECHR issued its judgment in Vallianatos and Others v Greece [(applications nos 29381/09 and 32684/09) Grand Chamber (7 November 2013) HUDOC], such law was amended by Law 4356/2015 [Civil partnership, exercise of rights, criminal and other provisions. Government Gazette A 181] in order to also include same-sex couples. Foreign family and succession law can be applied in Greece in accordance with the provisions of private international law—which are included in the Civil Code and the relevant EU legislation—subject, however, to potential public policy reservations. In the same spirit, foreign judgments concerning family law matters can be recognized and enforced in Greece in accordance with the provisions of procedural law—which are included in the Code of Civil Procedure [Presidential Decree 503/1985. Government Gazette A 182] and the relevant EU legislation—also subject to public policy reservations. Such conflict rules may, of course, lead to the application of a foreign law governing family relations that may be purely religious, i.e. non-state law, while foreign judgments seeking recognition and enforcement may have religious law applied, too.
 
57
Tsaoussi and Zervogianni (2008), p. 220. See Court of Appeal of Athens 10719/1995. (1997) Elliniki Dikaiosyni p. 638; Single-Member Court of First Instance of Athens 3020/1997. (1997) Armenopoulos p. 206, both rejecting the recognition of a divorce by repudiation issued by a Jordanian religious court. The judicial control of whether the mufti’s judgment contravenes the Constitution is different from the control of whether such judgment contravenes public policy. It has been argued that in the latter case private international law mechanisms enable the concrete examination of the particular dispute as well as the pragmatic balancing of interests by the judge. See in this respect Deliyanni-Dimitrakou (2009), p. 865 et seq.
 
58
See Sect. The Declaration of Enforceability of the Mufti’s Judgments.
 
59
Gallala-Arndt (2017), p. 1023.
 
60
See Sect. The Interpretation of the Legislation.
 
61
Papadopoulou (2012), p. 718.
 
62
Council Regulation (EU) No 1259/2010 of 20 December 2010 implementing enhanced cooperation in the area of the law applicable to divorce and legal separation, OJ 29.12.2010 L 343/10.
 
63
It is argued that the court should examine whether there is in concreto discrimination in the particular case, Marazopoulou (2016), para 34 in particular.
 
64
Vassilakakis (2016), p. 31. Cf. also CJEU, Judgment of 20 December 2017, Soha Sahyouni v Raja Mamisch, C-372/16, ECLI:EU:C:2017:988. Cf. Andrae (2018), p. 243: according to Articles 109 et seq. of the German Act on Proceedings in Family Matters and in Matters of Non-contentious Jurisdiction (Gesetz über das Verfahren in Familiensachen und in den Angelegenheiten der freiwilligen Gerichtsbarkeit—or Familienverfahrensgesetz—FamFG), religious courts are considered similar to state courts only insofar as they are equipped with state authority and enforcement power, and not when their authority is limited to merely pronouncing the legality of a divorce petition when divorce itself takes place privately, initiated by one or both spouses.
 
65
Vassilakakis (2016), p. 31. See also OLG Frankfurt, 16.1.2006, FamRBInt 2006, p. 77 = IPRax 2008, p. 352.
 
66
Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003 concerning jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and the matters of parental responsibility, repealing Regulation (EC) No 1347/2000, OJ 23.12.2003 L 338/01.
 
67
See also Jayme and Nordmeier (2008), p. 369, and Jayme and Nordmeier (2018), pp. 277–278, with further analysis of private international law implications.
 
68
Ratified by Legislative Decree 53/1974 [Rome Convention on Human Rights. Government Gazette A 256].
 
69
Ratified by Law 1342/1983 [On the ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Government Gazette A 39].
 
70
Ratified by Law 2462/1997 [Ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Government Gazette A 25].
 
71
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, OJ 08.02.2000 200/C 364/01.
 
72
Of particular importance is Article 4(2) of the Constitution, stating that Greek men and women have equal rights and equal obligations. Article 13(1) states that freedom of religious conscience is inviolable, and that the enjoyment of civil rights and liberties does not depend on the individual’s religion. Article 21(1) and (3) of the Constitution, furthermore, stipulates that the family, as the foundation of the preservation and advancement of the Nation, as well as marriage, motherhood and childhood, shall be under the protection of the State, and the State shall care for the health of its citizens and shall adopt special measures for the protection of its youth. Under Article 8 of the Constitution, no person shall be deprived of the judge assigned to him by law against his will, whereas judicial committees or extraordinary courts, under any name whatsoever, shall not be constituted. Finally, Article 20 of the Constitution introduces the guarantee of a fair trial, providing that every person shall be entitled to receive legal protection by the courts and may plead before them his views concerning his rights or interests, as specified by law.
 
73
It should also be noted, that in accordance with Article 30 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969, in the case of successive treaties the provisions of an earlier treaty only apply to the extent that they are compatible with the new, special one. Therefore, the conventions signed between Greece and Turkey shall apply only as long as they do not contravene these conventions on the protection of human rights. See Tsaoussi and Zervogianni (2008), p. 222.
 
74
ECtHR, Molla Sali v Greece, see Sect. 2.2.3 and note 4.
 
75
ECtHR, Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v Turkey, see Sect. 2.2.3 and note 41.
 
76
Answer given by Ms. Reding on behalf of the Commission (7 April 2011) to the written question of Mr. Mözler (23 February 2011), available at www.​europarl.​europa.​eu.
 
77
Answer given by Ms. Reding on behalf of the Commission (16 March 2012) to the written question of Mr. Obermayr (7 February 2012), available at www.​europarl.​europa.​eu.
 
78
Answer given by Ms. Reding on behalf of the Commission (11 March 2010) to the written question of Mr. Tremopoulos (18 January 2010), available at www.​europarl.​europa.​eu. According to the answer, as regards the particular situation, the Commission does not have any information showing that there is a link between this situation and EU law. It is, therefore, not in a position to pronounce on the existence of any incompatibility with EU law. Beyond the competences of the European Union, if a person considers his fundamental rights to have been violated, he can appeal to the European Court of Human Rights.
 
79
See Ktistakis (2007), pp. 229, 230; Papadopoulou (2012), pp. 706, 707; Tsavousoglou (2015), p. 248.
 
80
See in general, among others, Mallat and Connors (1990), Pearl and Menski (1998), Nasir (2002), Khan 2007a, b, 2011a, b).
 
81
Given that the analysis of the rules of the Sacred Islamic Law as applied in the particular case fall outside the scope of this report, for further relevant information one may refer to, among other sources, the Council of the Court of Appeal of Thrace 89/1995. (1998) Yperaspisi p, 78; Legal opinion of the Legal Council of the State No 686/1993, available at www.​nsk.​gr; Circular No 96080/19182/20.09.2002 of the Ministry of Interior Affairs, Public Administration and Decentralization; National Committee on Human Rights, Decision on Islamic marriages by proxy in Greece (May 2003), www.​nchr.​gr/​images/​pdf/​apofaseis/​meionothtes/​mousoulmanikos_​gamos_​dia_​antiproswpou2003​.​pdf; Demetriou and Gottwald (1995), Tsoukalas (1988), p. 1655; Tsoukalas (2002), pp. 1305–1306; Ktistakis (2007), p. 53; Tsaoussi and Zervogianni (2008), Pantelidou (2013), Sakaloglou (2015), Plagakos (2016), with further references.
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Managing Religious Law in a Secular State: The Case of the Muslims of Western Thrace
verfasst von
Vassiliki Koumpli
Copyright-Jahr
2022
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83106-6_14