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Erschienen in:

2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

6. Media Discourse in Syria and Iraq

verfasst von : Adib Abdulmajid

Erschienen in: Extremism in the Digital Era

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter delves into the discourse of various Syrian and Iraqi media outlets in a bid to study and explore the environment within which the extremist discourses of groups like ISIS and al-Hashd al-Shaabi have originated. Research data, collected from multiple influential local media outlets, are analyzed and discussed based on discursive ideologization and manipulation. This chapter primarily aims to tackle the question of sectarianization within the media discourse in Syria and Iraq through exploring the employed manipulative and ideological aspects.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Discourse: Theory and Practice

Nächstes Kapitel Radical Islamists in the Digital Era: A Multifaceted Extremist Discourse

“Awqaf Minister warns of wider spread of extremist mentality if not defeated now”, Syrian Arab News Agency, 13 September 2014. Retrieved from: https://www.sana.sy/en/?p=12995.

“ISIL acts in Iraq aimed at distorting Islam and destroying country”, Syrian Arab News Agency, 26 June 2014. Retrieved from: https://www.sana.sy/en/?p=4432.

“Syria condemns Brussels terrorist attacks, says they are result of wrong policies in favor of terrorism”, Syrian Arab News Agency, 22 March 2016. Retrieved from: https://sana.sy/en/?p=72593.

“Army continues operations against Takfīri terrorists, inflicts heavy losses upon them”, SANA, 25 September 2016. Retrieved from: https://sana.sy/en/?p=88957.

“Syria congratulates Iraq over triumph in Mosul against ISIS”, Syrian Arab News Agency, 10 July 2017. Retrieved from: https://sana.sy/en/?p=109744.

Wright et al. (2017). The Jihadi Threat: ISIS, al-Qaeda, and Beyond. 8.

O’Driscoll, D. and Zoonen, D. (2017). The Hashd al-Shaabi and Iraq: Subnationalism and the State.

“Main truces and Armistices between Assad Regime and Syrian Opposition”, Enab Baladi, 6 December 2015. Retrieved from: https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2015/12/main-truces-and-armistices-between-assad-regime-and-syrian-opposition/#ixzz59TqBaMTz.

“Between Hamdanid Dynasty and the State of Al-Assad, Will Aleppo convert to Shiʿism?”, Enab Baladi, 22 August 2017. Retrieved from: https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2017/08/hamdanid-dynasty-state-al-assad-will-aleppo-convert-Shiʿism/#ixzz59TtRQwQM.

“Al-Shiʿa Wal-Tashaīyuʿ fī Suriya”, Zaman al-Wasl, 28 October 2014. Retrieved from: https:// www.zamanalwsl.net/news/article/42509.

“The end of Aleppo … The Reasons Behind Defeat and the Potential Consequences”, Enab Baladi, 4 December 2016. Retrieved from: https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2016/12/end-aleppo-reasons-behind-defeat-potential-consequences/#ixzz59TrrboF2.

“Pro-regime Sunni fighters in Aleppo defy sectarian narrative”, Zaman al-Wasl, 16 March 2014. Retrieved from: https://en.zamanalwsl.net/news/article/4126/.

Makdisi, U. (2000). The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon. 7.

Corstange, D. and York, E. (2016). Sectarian Framing in the Syrian Civil War. 7.

Bebawi, S. and Bossio, D. (2014). Social Media and the Politics of Reportage. 93.

“ISIS emir captured by YPG: Turkey satisfies all of our needs”, ANF News, 18 August 2015. Retrieved from: https://anfenglish.com/kurdistan/isis-emir-captured-by-ypg-turkey-satisfies-all-of-our-needs-12395.

“Resistance has overturned balances”, ANHA, 24 October 2016. Retrieved from: https:// www.hawarnews.com/en/ara/Resistance+has+overturned+balances/.

“Mercenaries of the coalition break the truce”, ANHA, 15 September 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.hawarnews.com/en/ara/Mercenaries-of-the-coalition-break-the-truce.

“Changes in Aleppo, Idleb and Hama”, ANHA, 16 October 2016. Retrieved from: https:// www.hawarnews.com/en/ara/There-are-changes-in-Aleppo-Idleb-and-Hama.

Berger, A. (2012). Media and Society: A Critical Perspective. 16.

After driving ISIS militants out of several areas in northern Syria, the Kurds announced the creation of a self-rule in 2015 to run Kurdish-majority areas of northern Syria under the banner of “Federation of Northern Syria-Rojava.” This has ignited an aggressive Turkish response for fear of a similar move by Turkey’s Kurds, and the Turkish military then repeatedly bombed Syrian Kurdish areas in a bid to deter the alleged threat (Turkey v Syria’s Kurds v Islamic State, BBC Monitoring, 23 August 2016).

Turkey intervened militarily into northern Syria and targeted Kurdish-held areas in an attempt to prevent the establishment of a Kurdish self-rule or self-administration along its southern border, but its operations had been limited due to an American military presence alongside the Kurdish-led SDF troops who jointly fought against ISIS in the group’s de facto capital of Raqqa and other parts of northern Syria.

“Incubators of terrorism”, As-Sabah, 2 July 2015. Retrieved from: http://alsabaah.iq/.

“Cross-border terrorism”, As-Sabah, 8 July 2015. Retrieved from: http://alsabaah.iq.

“First we have to admit that cleavage exists”, As-Sabah, 23 December 2017. Retrieved from: http://alsabaah.iq.

“Al-Hashd Al-Shaabi”, As-Sabah, 25 February 2016. Retrieved from: http://alsabaah.iq.

Blass, R. (2005). Manipulation in the speeches and writings of Hitler and the NSDAP from a relevance rhetoric point of view. 175.

“Mosques burned down in Jalaula and Saadiyah”, Ash-Sharqiyah, 27 November 2014. Retrieved from: https://www. alsharqiya.com/news/حرق- 7 -مساجد-في-جلولاء-والسعدية/.

“Tikrit won’t be liberated without the participation of its own people”, Ash-Sharqiyah, 21 March 2015. Retrieved from: http:// www.alsharqiya.com/news/الالمطلك-معركة-تكريت-لن-تحسم-دون-اشراك-ا/.

“Militiamen abduct more than 30 civilians in al-Farhatiyah and Sayed Gharib in Salah al-Din”, Ash-Sharqiyah, 2 June 2015. Retrieved from: http:// www.alsharqiya.com/news/-تختطف-اكثر-من-30-مدمصادر-ميليشيات-وافدة/.

“Forces of al-Hashd al-Shaabi in Iraq form a strategic force to maintain future security in the country”, Ash-Sharqiyah, 4 January 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.alsharqiya.com/news/ news/علي-شمخاني-قوات-الحشد-الشعبي-في-العراق/

This relates to the concept of the politicization of sectarian identities and the conflicts that may emerge as a consequence.

“Jalawla, Sadia seethe in sectarian rivalries”, Rudaw, 2 January 2015. Retrieved from: https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/iraq/020120152.

“Sunni Arabs want to follow in footsteps of Kurdistan’s referendum”, Rudaw, 9 October 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/iraq/091020171.

“Hashd al-Shaabi trains hundreds of child soldiers south of Kirkuk”, Rudaw, 12 August 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/iraq/12082017.

“Iraq’s Sunni, Shiʿite leaders unite to condemn Kirkuk’s referendum vote”, Rudaw, 30 August 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/iraq/300820171.

The rifts emerged between Iraqi Kurds and Iran-supported pro-government Shia militias during the fight against ISIS over areas of control in liberated areas in northern Iraq. These rifts have intensified during the KRG-led independence referendum in Iraqi Kurdistan, and the security situation in the disputed province of Kirkuk deteriorated at the time to reach the level of military confrontations between the Kurds and government-Shia forces. But the crisis was resolved later following regional and international involvement. See The Kurdish Challenge to US Strategy in Iraq, The Washington Institute, 16 Oct. 2017: https://www.washingtoninstitute. org/fikraforum/view/the-kurdish-challenge-to-u.s.-strategy-in-iraq.

For an insight into the Kurdistan independence referendum of September 25, 2017, and the associated complications and crisis, see: A Report from the Kurdish Independence Referendum: Perspectives and Policy Implications for Stabilizing Iraq After ISIL, Hudson Institute, October 2017: https://www.ft.dk/samling/20181/almdel/uru/spm/60/svar/1544309/1994426.pdf.

van Dijk’s (2000) Ideological Square.

Blass’s (2005) Manipulative Strategies.