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2020 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

6. Military Veterans: The Challenges of Reintegration and Compensation

verfasst von : Lindy Heinecken

Erschienen in: South Africa's Post-Apartheid Military

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Somewhat outside of the SANDF, this chapter focuses on military veterans and the typical challenges they face in settling back into civilian society. The effect of the ‘total institution’ on the ‘habitus’ of military veterans, and the impact this has on economic, political and social reintegration is deliberated. The chapter ends with the discussion on how military veterans are being compensated and the political dynamics underlying this.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Political Reform: Integration, Representivity and Managing Diversity

Nächstes Kapitel Gender Equality: The Complexities of Gender Integration

Dandeker et al., Improving the Delivery of Cross Departmental Support and Services for Veterans; Beverly P. Bergman, Howard J. Burdett and Neil Greenberg, ‘Service Life and Beyond—Institution or Culture’, The RUSI Journal 159, no. 5 (2014): 60–68; Paul R. Higate, ‘Theorizing Continuity: From Military to Civilian Life’, Armed Forces & Society 27, no. 3 (2001): 443–460; Meredith Kleykamp, ‘A Great Place to Start? The Effect of Prior Military Service on Hiring’, Armed Forces & Society 35, no. 2 (2009): 266–285; Neil Kramm, ‘Youth and Military Service: Exploring the Effects of Military Socialisation, Reintegration and Employment’ (MA thesis, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Stellenbosch University, 2016).

Gear, Now that the War is Over; Mashike, ‘You Are a Time Bomb’; Ivan Y. Sun, Hung-En Sung and Doris C. Chu, ‘Collateral Gains from the Military? A Cross-National Analysis of the Armed Forces–Crime Relationship’, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 91, no. 5 (2007): 599–614.

Martin Rupiya, ‘What We Know About HIV and Aids in the Armed Forces in Southern Africa’, African Security Review 15, no. 4 (2000): 128–138.

Lindy Heinecken and Henriette Bwalya, ‘Compensating Military Veterans in South Africa’, African Security Review 22, no. 1 (2013): 30–46; Lephophotho Mashike and Mafole Mokalobe, Reintegration into Civilian Life: The Case of Former MK and APLA Combatants, CCR Occasional Paper 12, no. 1 (2003): 6–36.

Jacklyn Cock, ‘The Social Integration of Demobilized Soldiers in Contemporary South Africa’, South African Defence Review 2, no. 12 (1993): 1–17.

Rapp, ‘Defining New Roles’.

Van der Waag, A Military History of South Africa, 297

Siphokazi Magadla, ‘Women Combatants and the Liberation Movements in South Africa: Guerrilla Girls, Combative Mothers and the In-Betweeners’, African Security Review 24, no. 4 (2015): 390–402.

Ronald R. Krebs, ‘A School for the Nation? How Military Services Does Not Build Nations, and How It Might’, International Security 28, no. 4 (2004): 85–124.

Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990).

Higate, ‘Theorizing Continuity’, 447.

Ibid., 452.

Bergman, Burdett and Greenberg, ‘Service Life and Beyond’.

Ljubica Jelusic, ‘Conversion of the Military: Resource-Reuse Perspective After the End of the Cold War’, in Handbook of the Sociology of the Military, ed. Giuseppe Caforio (New York: Springer, 2006), 345–360.

Higate, ‘Theorizing Continuity’, 445 and 455.

Revecca M. Kilburn and Jacob Klerman, Enlistment Decisions in the 1990s: Evidence from Individual-Level Data (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 1999).

Kleykamp, ‘A Great Place to Start?’, 267–268.

Yuval Feinstein, ‘The Thin Line Between “Crazy” and “Hero”: Exploring the Multiple Statuses of US Veterans in a Work-therapy Programme’, Armed Forces & Society 41, no. 1 (2015): 4–6.

Ibid.; Hugo de Vries and Nikkie Wiegink, ‘Breaking up and Going Home? Contesting Two Assumptions in the Demobilization and Reintegration of Former Combatants’, International Peacekeeping 18, no. 1 (2011): 42.

Glen H. Elder, Jr., and Elizabeth C. Clipp, ‘Combat Experience and Emotional Health Impairment and Resilience in Later Life’, Journal of Personality 57, no. 2 (1989): 312–341.

Stephen L. Mangum and David E. Ball, ‘Military Skill Training: Some Evidence of Transferability’, Armed Forces & Society 13, no. 3 (1987): 425–441.

Jacklyn Cock, ‘Gun Violence and Masculinity in Contemporary South Africa’, in Changing Men in Southern Africa, ed. Robert Morrell (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 2001), 43–56; Godfrey Maringira, ‘Militarised Minds: The Lives of Ex-combatants in South Africa’, Sociology 49, no. 1 (2015): 72–87.

Kleykamp, ‘A Great Place to Start?’.

Kevin F. Gaw, ‘Reverse Culture Shock in Students Returning from Overseas’, International Journal of Intercultural Relations 24, no. 1 (2000): 83–104.

Gear, Now that the War is Over; Sasha Gear, Wishing Us Away: Challenges Facing Ex-Combatants in the ‘New’ South Africa, Violence and Transition series. Johannesburg: Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, 2002; Heinecken and Bwalya, ‘Compensating Military Veterans’; Markus Kostner and Edith H. Bowles. Veterans: Pensions and Other Compensation in Post-Conflict Countries (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2004); Guy Lamb, ‘From Military to Civilian Life’, Track Two 12, no. 1 (2003): 39–62; Mashike, ‘You Are a Time Bomb’.

Republic of South Africa, Military Veterans Act (18 of 2011), Government Gazette, 5 December 2011, https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/a182011.pdf, accessed 30 August 2019.

Wyndham Hartley, ‘Military Veterans Bill Passed for All Recruits’, Business Day, 17 August 2011.

Kim Helfrich, ‘National Servicemen to Stay on Veterans’ Database’, DefenceWeb, 27 February 2014, https://www.defenceweb.co.za/sa-defence/sa-defence-sa-defence/national-servicemen-to-stay-on-veterans-database/?catid=111%3Asa-defence, accessed 21 August 2019.

Tsepe Motumi and Andrew Hudson, ‘Rightsizing: The Challenges of Demobilisation and Social Reintegration in South Africa’, in Demobilisation and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Africa, ed. Jakkie Cilliers (Halfway House: Institute for Defence Policy, 1996), 119–122.

Van der Waag, A Military History of South Africa, 298.

Ibid.

Motumi and Hudson, ‘Rightsizing’, 122–126; Heinecken & Bwalya, ‘Compensating Military Veterans’; Mashike, ‘You Are a Time Bomb’.

See Mashike (2004) for an overview of the problems associated with the Service Corps, the failure to provide sufficient training, and the inability to facilitate the economic integration of former MK and APLA soldiers.

According to the payment schedule stipulated in the Act, those above 35 but younger than 45 received R6000 plus R1200 for each year of service exceeding 5 years, but less than or equal to 20 years. Liberation veterans who were older than 45 but younger than 65 received R12,000 plus R1 200 for each year of service which exceeded 5 years, but who had served less than 20 years. Payment for those 65 years and older was R24,000, plus R1200 for each year of service. Where years of service exceeded 25, a fixed amount of 84,000 was given.

Heinecken and Bwalya, ‘Compensating Military Veterans’, 34.

Republic of South Africa, White Paper on Defence [1996], 23.

Mashike, ‘You Are a Time Bomb’, 92.

Motumi and Hudson, ‘Rightsizing’, 127–128.

DefenceWeb, ‘Military Veterans Budget Increases’, DefenceWeb, 29 February 2019, https://www.defenceweb.co.za/featured/military-veterans-budget-increases/, accessed 21 August 2019.

Department of Defence and Military Veterans, ‘Military Veterans & Dependents Education Support: Department & NSFAS Input: DMV Performance’, 7 March 2018, https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/25924, accessed 21 August 2019.

Cock, ‘The Social Integration of Demobilized Soldiers’; Gear, Now that the War is Over; Gear, Wishing Us Away; Ian Liebenberg and Rialize Ferreira, ‘Loyal Service and Yet “Demobbed”: Demobilization and the Economic Reintegration of South Africa’s Demobilised Military Personnel’, Journal of Asian and African Studies 37, no. 3–5 (2002): 299–317; Ntsiki Motumi, ‘The Physical, Psychological and Welfare Needs of Former Non-Statutory Force Veterans’, African Security Review 6, no. 5 (1997): 1–9; Mashike, ‘You Are a Time Bomb’; Heinecken and Bwalya, ‘Compensating Military Veterans’.

Jacklyn Cock, ‘Forging a New Army out of Old Enemies: Women in the South African Military’, Women’s Studies Quarterly 23, no. 3/4 (1995): 97–111.

Mashike and Mokabole, ‘Reintegration into Civilian Life’”, 18.

Heideman, ‘The Struggle for Democracy’; G. Shelton, A. Monyue, M. Simmons and R. Williams. Demobilization and its Aftermath I: A Profile of South Africa’s Demobilized Military Personnel, ISS Occasional Paper 59, 2001; Stott, ‘From the SADF to the SANDF’.

Magadla, ‘Women Combatants and the Liberation Movements’, 391.

Andy Clarno and Salim Vally. ‘IRAQ: The South African Connection’, CorpWatch, 6 March 2005, http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=12061, accessed 21 August 2019.

Burgert Senekal, ‘The Controversy Surrounding Private Military Companies (PMCs): Looking Back on Executive Outcomes’, Contemporary History 35, no. 1 (2010): 176.

David Smith, ‘South Africa’s Ageing White Mercenaries Who Helped Turn Tide on Boko Haram’, The Guardian, 14 April 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/14/south-africas-ageing-white-mercenaries-who-helped-turn-tide-on-boko-haram, accessed 21 August 2019.

Lamb, ‘From Military to Civilian Life’, 53.

Shannon Bosch and Marelie Maritz, ‘South African Private Security Contractors Active in Armed Conflicts: Citizenship, Prosecution and the Right to Work’, Potschefstroomse Elektroniese Regsblad 14, no. 7 (2011), http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1727-37812011000700004, accessed 21 August 2019.

Clarno and Vally, ‘IRAQ: The South African Connection’.

The Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act (15 of 1998, hereafter the FMA) was the government’s hard-line response after Executive Outcomes made headlines around the world for their intervention in Sierra Leone in 1995. Eight years later, in response to concerns that the FMA was proving unworkable, the government promulgated the Prohibition of Mercenary Activities and Regulation of Certain Activities in the Country of Armed Conflict Act (27 of 2006, hereafter the PMA). While the PMA received the necessary presidential assent in November 2007, it has yet to achieve the presidential proclamation necessary for it to supersede the FMA and enter into force. Bosch and Maritz (2011) describe the various legal implications the PMA poses in terms of the rights of citizenship, prosecution and the right to work, which this legislation is seen to violate.

Senekal, ‘The Controversy Surrounding Private Military Companies’.

Clarno and Salim Vally, ‘IRAQ: The South African Connection’; Stott, ‘From the SADF to the SANDF’.

Victoria Eastwood, ‘Bigger Than the Army: South Africa’s Private Security Forces’, CNN, 8 February 2013, https://edition.cnn.com/2013/02/08/business/south-africa-private-security/index.html, accessed 21 August 2019; Lamb, ‘From Military to Civilian Life’, 57.

Lindy Heinecken and Rialize Ferreira, ‘From Military Profession to No Profession: The Plight of White Unemployment Military Veterans in South Africa’, paper presented at the XIX ISA World Congress of Sociology, Toronto, Canada, 15–21 July 2018.

Ibid.

Erika Gibson‚ ‘Gewese “parabats” kry kibboets-hawe’, Rapport, 26 March 2017.

Neil Kramm and Lindy Heinecken, ‘We Are Different Now? The Effect of Military Service on Youth Reintegration and Employment in South Africa’, African Security Review 24, no. 2 (2015): 122–137.

Kramm, ‘Youth and Military Service’, 97.

Kramm and Heinecken, ‘We Are Different Now?’, 12.

Republic of South Africa, Defence Force Service Commission, Annual Report FY2015/2016, 36, http://pmg-assets.s3-website-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/DFSC_Annual_Report_2015_to_2016.pdf, accessed 21 August 2019.

Maringira, ‘Militarised Minds’, 75.

Kramm and Heinecken, ‘We Are Different Now?’, 9.

De Vries and Wiegink, ‘Breaking up and Going Home?’; Elder and Clipp, ‘Combat Experience and Emotional Health’.

Kramm, ‘Youth and Military Service’, 106.

Mashike and Mokalobe “Reintegration into Civilian Life’, 28.

Bill Corcoran, ‘Anti-Apartheid Veterans Left in the Lurch’, The Irish Times, 1 October 2011, http://www.irishtimes.com/news/anti-apartheid-veterans-left-in-the-lurch-1.611906, accessed 21 August 2019.

Cock, ‘The Social Integration of Demobilized Soldiers’; Lephophotho Mashike, Beyond the Armed Struggle: A Sociological Profile of Ex-MK Soldiers (Johannesburg: Group for Environmental Monitoring, 1999); Gear, Now that the War is Over; Heideman, ‘The Struggle for Democracy’.

Martin Connell et al., ‘Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and Resilience in Veterans Who Served in the South African Border War’, African Journal of Psychiatry 16, no. 6 (2013): 433.

At one such occasion, during a dinner while discussing the writing of this book, a friend and former conscript now in his early fifties broke out in a sweat as he described how his experiences of military service and serving in the Border War still haunt him today. Were it not for a friend’s suggesting that he went for counselling, he does not know how he would have coped.

The Council of Military Veterans’ Organizations of the Republic of South Africa, https://www.cmvo.org.za/

Heinecken and Ferreira, ‘From Military Profession to No Profession’.

Roger Southall, ‘ANC’s Military Veterans Could Be a Threat to SA’s Democracy’, IOL, 13 April 2017, https://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/ancs-military-veterans-could-be-a-threat-to-sas-democracy-8654788, accessed 21 August 2019.

Mashike and Makolobe, ‘Reintegration into Civilian Life’, 30.

Corcoran, ‘Anti-Apartheid Veterans Left in the Lurch’.

Heinecken and Bwalya, ‘Compensating Military Veterans’.

Ibid., 9.

Southall, ‘ANC’s Military Veterans Could Be a Threat to SA’s Democracy’.

amaBhungane and Scorpio, ‘GuptaLeaks: How Guptas Picked Up ANC Military Vets’ Conference Tab’, Daily Maverick, 18 July 2017, https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2017-07-18-scorpio-amabhungane-guptaleaks-how-guptas-picked-up-anc-military-vets-conference-tab/#.WW-W5U2wfIW, accessed 21 August 2019.

Lamb, ‘From Military to Civilian Life’.

Smith, ‘South Africa’s Ageing White Mercenaries’.

Bongani Mbinwane, ‘Soldiers for Hire: SA’s Greatest Security Risk’, Daily Maverick, 25 May 2015, https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2015-05-25-soldiers-for-hire-sas-great-security-risk/#.WXCBZ02wfIV, accessed 21 August 2019.

Christopher Dandeker et al., ‘What’s in a Name? Defining and Caring for “Veterans”: The United Kingdom in International Perspective’, Armed Forces & Society 32, no. 2 (2006): 161–177.

Chris Alden, ‘Making Old Soldiers Fade Away: Lessons from the Reintegration of Demobilized Soldiers in Mozambique’, Security Dialogue 33, no. 3 (2002): 341–56; Kostner and Bowles, Veterans; Lalli Metsola, ‘The Struggle Continues? The Spectra of Liberation Memory and “War Veterans” in Namibia’, Development and Change 41, no. 4 (2010): 596.

Heinecken and Bwalya, ‘Compensating Military Veterans’, 38.

Anonymous, ‘Soldiers Wreck their Own Case’, Sunday Times, 6 September 2009.

SANMVA comprises of the following founder member organisations: Azanian People’s Liberation Army Military Veterans’ Association, Azanian National Liberation Army Military Veterans’ Association, Council of Military Veterans’ Organizations, uMkhonto we Sizwe Military Veterans’ Association, Bophuthatswana Defence Force Military Veterans’ Association, Ciskei Defence Force Military Veterans’ Association, Transkei Defence Force Military Veterans’ Association, and Venda Defence Force Military Veterans’ Association.

Lindiwe Sisulu, ‘Department of Defence and Military Veterans: Minister’s Budget Vote Speech’, briefing, 17 May 2012, https://pmg.org.za/briefing/18977/, accessed 21 August 2019.

Hartley ‘Military Veterans Bill Passed for All Recruits’.

Portfolio Committee on Defence and Military Veterans, ‘ATC161021: Budgetary Review and Recommendations’, 10.

DefenceWeb, ‘Military Veterans Budget Increases’.

Ibid.

Erika Gibson, email correspondence with author, 6 June 2018.

Heinecken and Bwalya, ‘Compensating Military Veterans’.

Heideman, ‘The Struggle for Democracy’, 162.

Henrietta Bwalya and Cheryl Hendricks, ‘The Military Veterans Act of 2011: Promising More Than Can Be Delivered?’, ISS Today, 21 May 2012, https://issafrica.org/iss-today/the-military-veterans-act-of-2011-promising-more-than-can-be-delivered, accessed 21 August 2019.

Titel: Military Veterans: The Challenges of Reintegration and Compensation
verfasst von: Lindy Heinecken
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: South Africa's Post-Apartheid Military
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-33733-9

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-33734-6

Copyright-Jahr: 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33734-6_6

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