Nanomaterials: Risks and Benefits

There are currently hundreds of available consumer products that contain nanoscale materials. Human exposure is, therefore, likely to occur in occupational and environmental settings. Mounting evidence suggests that some nanomaterials exert toxicity in cultured cells or following in vivo exposures, but this is dependent on the physicochemical characteristics of the materials and the dose. This Working Group report summarizes the discussions of an expert scientific panel regarding the gaps in knowledge that impede effective human health risk assessment for nanomaterials, particularly those that are suspended in a gas or liquid and, thus, deposit on skin or in the respiratory tract. In addition to extensive descriptions of material properties, the Group identified as critical research areas: external and internal dose characterization, mechanisms of response, identification of sensitive subpopulations, and the development of screening strategies and technology to support these investigations. Important concepts in defining health risk are reviewed, as are the specific kinds of studies that will quickly reduce the uncertainties in the risk assessment process.

This review focuses on emerging concepts in the fundamental understanding of how particle surfaces interact with components in biological fluids, with an emphasis on how these interactions may inform research regarding the biodistribution of nanosized materials from the portal of entry to other organ systems. The respiratory tract is given particular focus here because of expected occupational and environmental exposure scenarios. Information regarding the biodistribution of nanoparticles and how they might be altered during the process by their local environment is a critical part of a complete human health risk assessment.

Skin penetration is one of the major routes of exposure for nanoparticles to gain access to a biological system. QD nanoparticles have received a great deal of attention due to their fluorescent characteristics and potential use in medical applications. However, little is known about their permeability in skin. This study focuses on three types of quantum dots (QD) with different surface coatings and concentrations on their ability to penetrate skin. QD621 (polyethylene glycol coated, PEG) was studied for 24 h in porcine skin flow-through diffusion cells. QD565 and QD655 coated with carboxylic acid were studied for 8 and 24 h in flow-through diffusion cells with flexed, tape stripped and abraded rat skin to determine if these mechanical actions could perturb the barrier and affect penetration. Confocal microscopy depicted QD621 penetration through the uppermost layers of the stratum corneum (SC) and fluorescence was found in the SC and near hair follicles. QD621 were found in the intercellular lipid layers of the SC by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). QD565 and 655 with flexed and tape-stripped skin did not show penetration; only abraded skin showed penetration in the viable dermal layers. In all QD studies, inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) analysis for cadmium (Cd) and fluorescence for QD did not detect Cd or fluorescence signal in the perfusate at any time point, concentration or type of QD. These results indicate that porcine skin penetration of QD621 is minimal and limited primarily to the outer SC layers, while QD565 and 655 penetrated into the dermis of abraded skin. The anatomical complexity of skin and species differences should be taken into consideration when selecting an animal model to study nanoparticle absorption/penetration. These findings are of importance to risk assessment for nanoscale materials because it indicates that if skin barrier is altered such as in wounds, scrapes, or dermatitis conditions could affect nanoparticle penetration deeper into the dermal layers and skin is an important organ and can serve as a potential route of exposure and should not be overlooked.

Nanotechnology is a rapidly emerging field. There are currently over 500 consumer products available in the marketplace and the field of nanotechnology itself that will be worth over $1 trillion by 2012. However, with an increasing number of products emerging, there is also a consequent rise in ecological and human exposure. The risk and degree of exposure to nanoscale particles (NP) will vary depending on the form of the particle, for example, powder, liquid or encapsulated, when contact occurs. Although, general public exposure to NP is increasing due to the shear number of products available, the majority of human exposure still occurs in an occupational setting. Preliminary exposure studies demonstrate that NP may enter the body via the gastrointestinal, respiratory and integumentary systems and then translocate to other vital organs and systems (for example via the olfactory bulb). Historical data on ultrafine particles have shown a higher incidence of lung cancer and respiratory disorders associated with exposure. Due to these data and evidence emerging directly on NP, precautionary measures may be warranted to ensure worker safety. Regulatory agencies and manufacturers are beginning to consider standard practices that adequately protect workers from nanoscale particle exposure. The occupational hazards associated with exposure and the current safety recommendations will be discussed.

Studies of nanoscale mineral fibers have demonstrated that the toxic and carcinogenic effects are related to the surface area and surface activity of inhaled particles. Particle surface characteristics are considered to be key factors in the generation of free radicals and reactive oxygen species and are related to the development of apoptosis or cancer. Existing physico-chemical methods do not always allow estimation of the nanoparticles impact on organismal and cellular levels. The aim of this study was to develop marker system for evaluation the toxic and carcinogenic effects of nanoparticles on cells. The markers are designed with respect to important nanoparticles characteristics for specific and sensitive assessment of their impact on biological system. We have studied DNA damage, the activity of xanthine oxidoreductase influencing the level of free radicals, bioenergetic status, phospholipids profile and formation of

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H-NMR-visible mobile lipid domains in Ehrlich carcinoma cells. The efficiency of the proposed marker system was tested

in vivo

and

in vitro

with the use of C

60

fullerene nanoparticles and multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Our data suggest that multiwalled carbon nanotubes and fullerene C

60

may pose genotoxic effect, change energy metabolism and membrane structure, alter free radical level via xanthine oxidase activation and cause mobile lipid domains formation as determined

in vivo

and

in vitro

studies on Ehrlich carcinoma cells.

The paper deals with the unusual pathologies some soldiers contracted after exposure in battle theatres in Iraq and in the Balkans, and considers the hypotheses the Authors developed to explain the origin of those diseases, that proved to be lethal in a few cases. The scenario of particulate nanopollution generated by high-temperature combustions characteristic of some weapons is described. The electron-microscopy observations carried out in 37 soldiers' pathological tissues verified the internal dissemination of toxic metallic micro and nano-particles. The article considers the way of entrance of those nanopollutants: the lung for inhalation and the digestive system for the ingestion of polluted food. Battle theatre pollution is also discussed.

Traditional risk assessment procedures are inadequate for predicting the ecological risks associated with the release of nanomaterials (NM) into the environment. The root of the problem lies in an inadequate application of solid phase chemical principles (e.g. particle size, shape, functionality) for the risk assessment of NMs. Thus, the “solubility” paradigm used to evaluate the risks associated with other classes of contaminants must be replaced by a “dispersivity” paradigm for evaluating the risks associated with NM. The pace of development of NM will exceed the capacity to conduct adequate risk assessments using current methods and approaches. Each NM product will be available in a variety of size classes and with different surface functionalizations; probably requiring multiple risk assessments for each NM. The “SMARTEN” approach to risk assessment involves having risk assessors play a more proactive role in evaluating all aspects of the NM life cycle and in making decisions to develop lower risk NM products. Improved problem formulation could come from considering the chemical, physical and biological properties of NMs. New effects assessment techniques are needed to evaluate cellular binding and uptake potential, such as biological assays for binding to macromolecules or organelles, phagocytic activity, and active/passive uptake processes. Tests should be developed to evaluate biological effects with multiple species across a range of trophic levels. Despite our best efforts to assess the risks associated with NM, previous experience indicates that some NM products will enter the environment and cause biological effects. Therefore, risk assessors should support programs for reconnaissance and surveillance to detect the impacts of NM before irreversible damage occurs. New analytical tools are needed for surveillance, including sensors for detecting NMs, passive sampling systems, and improved methods for separation and characterization of NMs in environmental matrices, as well as biomarker techniques to evaluate exposure to NMs. Risk assessors should use this information to refine data quality, determine future risk assessment objectives and to communicate interim conclusions to a wide group of stakeholders.

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The challenge associated with determining the environmental fate and risk of engineered nanomaterials lies in understanding the fundamentally associated solid-phase chemistry. The solid phase represents the most complex, most thermodynamically “powerful”, yet the least understood phase among the three phases (solid, liquid, gas) commonly present in environmental systems. This difficulty is compounded by the fact that the nanoparticle size range represents a frontier field in itself in solid-phase chemistry, being the smallest size particles, close to the solid-phase — macromolecule boundary yet the most chemically reactive fraction in solid mixtures.

This chapter contains a brief review of some important properties or characteristics of solid phase particles. These properties are presented theoretically as directed interactions among multiple linkages of any single property to another. Selected properties discussed in this chapter include particle charge, crystal structure, surface and bulk speciation, surface area, and adsorption phase composition. This discussion is presented in the context of solid-phase characteristics that influence nanoparticle dispersion stability and potential bioavailability by controlling particle size.

The existing approaches for assessing the environmental risks of nanomaterials need to be adapted to the behaviors of nanomaterials before they can provide reliable information. Assessing or predicting these risks requires understanding of the potential sources of these materials to the environment, their distribution once released, their transformations and persistence, and their potential negative effects. In this chapter we discuss the potential sources of nanomaterials released to the environment, then we present potential physical and biogeochemical processes that can affect the fate, transport, and transformations of manufactured nanomaterials released into the environment. Finally, we discuss modifications of existing risk analysis methods needed and the most important data gaps that must be filled in order to assess the environmental risks associated with these materials.

This paper presents our research on the visualization and transport phenomena of quantum dot nanomaterials in porous media. It includes the development of a non-intrusive, high spatial and temporal resolution method to visualize transport and measure quantum dot nanomaterials concentration in porous media, allowing to characterize the mechanisms that control the transport, or lack of mobility, of engineered nanomaterials — quantum dots — in subsurface complex and heterogeneous environment. The visualization technique used to explore the transport of quantum dot nanomaterials is a toolbox that allows to characterize a wide range of flow and transport phenomena due to mesoscale heterogeneities. The characterization of these flow and transport phenomena includes the visualization and/or quantification of flow, fluid content and nanoparticle concentrations. The visualization technique selected to investigate transport of quantum dot nanomaterials in two-dimensional variably saturated porous media is a non-intrusive method based on fluorescence resulting from the quantum dots optical properties. The visualization procedure consists of exciting fluorescent quantum dots in porous media by using a UV light located in the front of the chamber and in characterizing the water content with the light transmitted through the porous media by using light emitted devices (LEDs) as a light source placed in the back of the chamber. The visualization, calibration and image analysis are performed using an image software. Experiments investigating quantum dot nanomaterials transport in unsaturated zone demonstrates the effects of preferential flow and gas-water interfaces on the transport of quantum dot nanomaterials through the vadose zone.

The nanotechnology industry is developing rapidly and promises to spawn many exciting products in the field of medicine, manufacturing, and various environmental fields, such as bio-control agents, and remediation catalysts. However, as legitimate questions of environmental safety go unanswered, opposition to the industry is accelerating just as rapidly. Unique physico-chemical properties of compounds within the nano-range present unknown toxicities relative to similar substances of larger dimensions. There is a critical need for a framework to assess risk of nanoscale particles that both the public and industry can accept.

The release of nanomaterials and, in particular, free nanoparticles into the environment from secondary sources such as industrial manufacturing and consumer products as well as from intentional environmental application has compelled a need for a broad and pre-emptive analysis of nanomaterial fate and transport in the environment and subsequent potential human exposure pathways. The novel and potentially reactive characteristics of nanomaterials have lead to predictions on potential undesirable ramifications of exposure to these materials on human health. The three-level risk assessment strategy presented in this work has its basis in qualitative model equations that represent the inter-relationships between the different material and process characteristics and environmental behaviors and their relationship to potential exposure scenarios. The factors that influence these behaviors are examined, and the potential application of this risk assessment strategy in a semi-quantitative model is considered.

There is rapidly growing interest by regulatory agencies and stakeholders in the potential toxicity and other risks associated with nanomaterials throughout the different stages of the product life cycle (e.g., development, production, use and disposal). Risk assessment methods and tools developed and applied to chemical and biological material may not be readily adaptable for nanomaterials because of the current uncertainty in identifying the relevant physico-chemical and biological properties that adequately describe the materials. Such uncertainty is further driven by the substantial variations in the properties of the original material because of the variable manufacturing processes employed in nanomaterial production. To guide scientists and engineers in nanomaterial research and application as well as promote the safe use/handling of these materials, we propose a decision support system for classifying nanomaterials into different risk categories. The classification system is based on a set of performance metrics that measure both the toxicity and physico-chemical characteristics of the original materials, as well as the expected environmental impacts through the product life cycle. The stochastic multicriteria acceptability analysis (SMAA-TRI), a formal decision analysis method, was used as the foundation for this task. This method allowed us to cluster various nanomaterials in different risk categories based on our current knowledge of nanomaterial's physico-chemical characteristics, variation in produced material, and best professional judgement. SMAA-TRI uses Monte Carlo simulations to explore all feasible values for weights, criteria measurements, and other model parameters to assess the robustness of nanomaterial grouping for risk management purposes.

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Nanotechnology is a platform technology that is finding more and more applications daily. Today over 600 consumer products are available globally that utilize nanomaterials. This chapter explores the use of nanomaterials and nanotechnology in three areas, namely Medicine, Environment and Energy. Given the large number of applications being designed that utilize nanomaterials and nanotechnologies, and the perception that nanotechnology can (or will) provide the ultimate solution for the world's problems; questions arise regarding who benefits from these technological advances. Additionally, within the popular press all nanotechnology products are generally portrayed as being beneficial to society without necessarily distinguishing between real and potential benefits of the technology. Lastly, the benefits and implications of these technological advancements in society are explored.

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Aqueous preparation of nanoparticles using vitamins B

2

and C which can function both as reducing and capping agents are described. Bulk and shape-controlled synthesis of noble nanostructures

via

microwave (MW)-assisted spontaneous reduction of noble metal salts using α-D-glucose, sucrose, and maltose has been achieved. The MW method also accomplishes the cross-linking reaction of poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) with metallic systems such as Pt, Cu, and In; bimetallic systems, namely Pt-In, Ag-Pt, Pt-Fe, Cu-Pd, Pt-Pd and Pd-Fe; and single-walled nanotubes (SWNT), multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT), and Buckmin-sterfullerene (C-60). The strategy is extended to the formation of biodegradable carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) composite films with noble nanometals; such metal decoration and alignment of carbon nanotubes in CMC is possible using a MW approach. The MW approach also enables the shape-controlled bulk synthesis of Ag and Fe nanorods in poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG).

The paper deals with a novel method of obtaining nano-carbon colloids (NCC). The method allows synthesizing aqueous dispersions of NCC with the sizes in the range of 1–100 nm, concentration of 150–400 ppm and pH of 2.8–3.1. Due to functional carboxyl groups the ion exchange capacity of carbon colloids obtained is very high — 7.4 mmol/g for a monovalent cation. NCC can be used for effective removal of metal ions (Zn, Ni, Cu, Sb, Co, Cd, Cr, etc.) from contaminated water.

Health risks associated with inhalation of airborne particles are known to be influenced by particle sizes. A reliable, size resolving sampler, classifying particles in size ranges from 2 nm—30 μm and suitable for use in the field would be beneficial in investigating health risks associated with inhalation of airborne particles. A review of current aerosol samplers highlighted a number of limitations. These could be overcome by combining an inertial deposition impactor with a diffusion collector in a single device. The instrument was designed for analysing mass size distributions. Calibration was carried out using a number of recognised techniques. The instrument was tested in the field by collecting size resolved samples of lead containing aerosols present at workplaces in factories producing crystal glass. The mass deposited on each substrate proved sufficient to be detected and measured using atomic absorption spectroscopy. Mass size distributions of lead were produced and the proportion of lead present in the aerosol nanofraction calculated and varied from 10% to 70% by weight.

Assessments of nanoparticle exposure are needed to enable risk assessments which are needed to achieve a sustainable development of nanotechnology including public perception. Therefore an overview of measurement techniques, needed data quality, comparability, and measurement strategies is given. Additionally some results of exposure related studies are summarized. Overall it is demonstrated that an integrated approach towards nanoparticle exposure assessments in workplaces, but also in the environment is needed, despite the current published results indicating mainly release of nanoparticle agglomerates in the size range larger than 100 nm.

The use of electrospun fibers as drug carriers could be promising in the future for biomedical applications, especially postoperative local chemotherapy. In this research, electrospun fibers were developed as a new system for the delivery of ketoprofen as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). The fibers were made either from polycaprolactone (PCL) as a biodegradable polymer or polyurethane (PU) as a non-biodegradable polymer, or from the blends of the two. The release of the ketoprofen was followed by UV—VIS spectroscopy in phosphate buffer of pH 7.4 at 37°C and 20°C. The results showed that the release rates from the polycaprolactone, polyurethane and their blend were similar. However, the blend of the polycaprolactone with polyurethane improved its visual mechanical properties. Release profiles from the electrospun mats were compared to cast films of the various formulations.

Air pollution is a serious problem in thickly populated and industrialized areas in Egypt, especially in greater Cairo area. Economic growth and industrialization are proceeding at a rapid pace, accompanied by increasing emissions of air polluting sources. Furthermore, though the variety and quantities of polluting sources have increased dramatically, the development of a suitable method for monitoring the pollution causing sources has not followed at the same pace. Environmental impacts of air pollutants have impact on public health, vegetation, material deterioration etc. To prevent or minimize the damage caused by atmospheric pollution, suitable monitoring systems are urgently needed that can rapidly and reliably detect and quantify polluting sources for monitoring by regulating authorities in order to prevent further deterioration of the current pollution levels. Consequently, it is important that the current real-time air quality monitoring system, controlled by the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA), should be adapted or extended to aid in alleviating this problem. Nanotechnology has been applied to several industrial and domestic fields, for example, applications for gas monitoring systems, gas leak detectors in factories, fire and toxic gas detectors, ventilation control, breath alcohol detectors, and the like. Here we report an application example of studying air quality monitoring based on nanotechnology ‘solid state gas sensors’. So as to carry out air pollution monitoring over an extensive area, a combination of ground measurements through inexpensive sensors and wireless GIS will be used for this purpose. This portable device, comprising solid state gas sensors integrated to a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) linked through Bluetooth communication tools and Global Positioning System (GPS), will allow rapid dissemination of information on pollution levels at multiple sites simultaneously.

One of the most interesting directions in material engineering during the past few years is the technical development of nanocomposite materials consisting from two or more phases with precise interphase border and nanostructured materials based on interpenetrated polymer network. Israel is one of world leaders in fundamental and industrial nanotechnology research, including fostering of start-up companies. Some important developments in the field of nanotechnology material engineering in Israel are summarized in the paper.

The bactericidal effect of silver nanoparticles obtained by a novel electrochemical method on

Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus niger and Penicillium phoeniceum

cultures has been studied. The tests conducted have demonstrated that synthesized silver nanoparticles — when added to water paints or cotton fabrics — show a pronounced antibacterial/antifungal effect. It was shown that smaller silver nanoparticles have a greater antibacterial/antifungal efficacy. The paper also provides a review of scientific literature with regard to recent developments in the field of toxicity of silver nanoparticles and its effect on environment and human health.

Emerging countries, such as Brazil, are beginning to feel the impact of nanomaterial production occurring in further developed countries. It is important to identify strategies for the risk management of these products. For this reason, Fundacentro, a Ministry of Labor and Employment institution, in Brazil is currently working to develop management strategies for nanotechnology and its associated risk.

One of Brazil's first efforts to develop a nanotechnology management and risk assessment plan occurred at the “Nanotechnology, Environment and Society for a Possible New World” workshop held on January 25, 2004 at the 5th World Social Forum in Porto Alegre. Within the same year, there was also the creation of Renanosoma, a Brazilian research network involved in nanotechnology, sociological issues, and environmental matters. The aim of Renanosoma is to research potential effects of nanotechnology and increase public awareness of the social,economical, environmental, and ethical impacts. This network has also been responsible for four international seminars related to nanotechnology, and coordinated a federally funded project titled “Public Engagement in nanotechnology”. Through this project, conferences are held three times a week via the internet (http://www. meebo.com/room/nanotecnologia/). In each conference, debates involving a main speaker (a previously invited researcher), researchers from all over the country, social scientist, and the interested public discuss different views and aspects of nanotechnology's implementations and impacts.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the first steps in the area of Nanotechnology risk studies in Russia, to discuss the importance of joining Russia to the bodies responsible for international cooperation on environmental, health and safety impacts of N&N.

In this paper, various aspects of modern nanotechnologies and, as a result, risks of nanomaterials impact on an environment are considered. This very brief review of the First International Conference on Material and Information Sciences in High Technologies (2007, Baku, Azerbaijan) is given. The conference presented many reports that were devoted to nanotechnology in biology and business for the developing World, formation of charged nanoparticles for creation of functional nanostructures, nanoprocessing of carbon nanotubes, magnetic and optical properties of manganese-phosphorus nanowires, ultra-nanocrystalline diamond films, and nanophotonics communications in Azerbaijan. The mathematical methods of simulation of the group, individual and social risks are considered for the purpose of nanomaterials risk reduction and remediation. Lastly, we have conducted studies at a plant of polymeric materials (and nanomaterials), located near Baku. Assessments have been conducted on the individual risk of person affection and constructed the map of equal isolines and zones of individual risk for a plant of polymeric materials (and nanomaterials).

Many policy frameworks for risk assessment of manufactured nanomate-rials have been developed worldwide. These frameworks range from voluntary methods and self-regulation to prescriptive regulation. In our view, the regulatory policies ideally need to include consideration of the risks and benefits of nanotech-nology, as well as risk perception and risk communication efforts. Further, the policies should: (a) take a holistic viewpoint, considering the entire lifecycle of a manufactured nanomaterial, including use, production, transport, and disposal, and (b) consider the ecological and human health effects for all of the reasonably foreseeable exposures. There is a need for adaptive management to allow reaction to new developments (e.g., new toxicology information) and to gain additional information through policy.

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Abstract. This paper introduces the work of OECD ' s Working Party on Manufactured Nanomaterials. In particular, it describes its “sponsorship programme” through which OECD member countries and other stakeholders are collaborating to fund and manage the safety testing of 14 manufactured nanomaterials. The paper describes the endpoints which will be addressed during the safety testing which cover both human health and environmental safety. There is also reference to supporting work including a preliminary review of existing test guidelines as well as work on alterative test methods which ultimately aims to avoid the use of animal testing.

(This paper does not necessarily represent the views of OECD or its member countries.)

Exposure assessment is crucial for risk assessment for nanomaterials. We propose a framework to aid exposure assessment in consumer products. We determined the location of the nanomaterials and the chemical identify of the 580 products listed in the inventory maintained by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. It was found that in 19% of the products the nanomaterial were nanoparticles bound to the surfaces. Nanoparticles suspended in liquids were used in 37% of the products, whereas 13% used nanoparticles suspended in solids. One percent were powders containing free potentially airborne nanoparticles. Based on the location of the nanostructure we were able to further group the products into categories of: (1) Expected to cause exposure; (2) May cause exposure; and (3) No expected exposure to the consumer. Most products fall into the category of expected exposure, but we were not able to complete the quantitative exposure assessment mainly due to the lack of information on the concentration of the nanomaterial in the products — a problem that regulators and industry will have to address if we are to have realistic exposure assessment in the future. To illustrate the workability of our procedure, we applied it to a product scenario — the application of sun lotion — using best estimates available and/or worst case assumptions.

The quantity of the active substance on the skin per application for a 2 year old child is found be A

der

= 260 mg for a particle concentration of 10% if the amounts applied correspond to the European Commission's recommendations on use of sunscreen. This value is about three times less than that for an adult. The potential worst case dermal uptake assuming full skin penetration is found to be 63 mg kg

−1

bw day

−1

for a particle concentration of 10% for a 2 years old child, which is twice the dermal uptake for an adult.

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Central to the responsible development of nanotechnologies is an understanding of the risks they pose to the environment. As with any novel material or emerging technology, a scarcity of data introduces potentially high uncertainty in to the characterisation of risk. Early priorities are the identification of key areas of risk uncertainty and the strategic approach for managing and reducing these. This is important as the information subsequently gathered supports decision making and policy development. We identify one important source of uncertainty for the quantification of both hazard and exposure for nanomaterials, the complexity of their behaviour in natural systems. We then outline two approaches for managing this uncertainty, based on experiences with chemicals: one that primarily focuses on hazard and one that initially focuses on exposure. While each approach places emphasis on different information requirements a common feature is the considerable time lag between information gathering and subsequent decision making based on the evidence gathered. Complementary environmental surveillance approaches can act as a safety net, although it is not as yet clear how fit for purpose current monitoring programmes are in this regard.

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The worldwide market for nanomaterials is growing rapidly, but relatively little is still known about the potential risks associated with these materials. The potential health hazards associated with exposure to nanomaterials may lead in the future to increased health costs as well as increased economic costs to the companies involved, as has happened in the past in the case of asbestos. Therefore, it is important to make an initial estimate of the potential costs associated with these health hazards, and to prepare ahead with appropriate health insurance for individuals and financial insurance for companies. While several studies have examined the environmental and health hazards of different nanomaterials by performing life cycle impact assessments, so far these studies have concentrated on the cost of production, and did not estimate the economic impact of the health hazards. This paper discusses methods of evaluating the economic impact of potential health hazards on the public. The proposed method is based on using life cycle impact assessment studies of nanomaterials to estimate the DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Years) associated with the increased probability of these health hazards. The economic valuation of DALY's can be carried out based on the income lost and the costs of medical treatment. The total expected increase in cost depends on the increase in the statistical probability of each disease.

This study is conducted to provide a balanced, concise yet comprehensive perspective of potentials and risks associated with the use of nanotechnology. Risk assessment modality is based on parameters that evolve as a result of interaction of reduced dimensional materials with its environment and observed toxicological effects, as compared to the one based on conjecture. An overview of the fate and transport of nanomaterials in air, water, and soil, resulting in environmental impacts, human health, and ecology is briefly discussed. A three pillared approach to assessing nanotechnology risk is discussed, viz.: to develop a framework for assessing nanotechnology risk; to develop a survey instrument for assessing risks from expert elicitation; and to conduct a Delphi based study to build upon initial survey results. A framework for developing a comprehensive survey instrument is discussed.

A group decision-making context is created to enable assessment of the Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) performance in presence of complete and incomplete information. To illustrate it, four recognized nanotechnology suppliers are evaluated across seven commonly used company/product attributes (net price, delivery, quality, production facilities, technical capability, management and organization, and geographical location) to identify the best one in multicriteria sense. Broad overview of applicable selection criteria and related MCDM methodologies is also presented.

Despite concerns regarding environmental fate and toxicology, engineered nanostructured material manufacturing is expanding at an increasingly rapid pace. In particular, the unique properties of single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) have made them attractive in many areas, including high-tech power applications such as experimental batteries, fuel cells or electrical wiring. The intensity of research interest in SWCNT has raised questions regarding the life cycle environmental impact of nanotechnologies, including assessment of: worker and consumer safety, greenhouse gas emissions, toxicological risks associated with production or product emissions and the disposition of nanoproducts at end of life. However, development of appropriate nanotechnology assessment tools has lagged progress in the nanotechnologies themselves. In particular, current approaches to life cycle assessment (LCA) — originally developed for application in mature manufacturing industries such as automobiles and chemicals — suffer from several shortcomings that make applicability to nanotechnologies problematic. Among these are uncertainties related to the variability of material properties, toxicity and risk, technology performance in the use phase, nanomaterial degradation and change during the product life cycle and the impact assessment stage of LCA. This chapter expounds upon the unique challenges presented by nanomaterials in general, specifies sources of uncertainty and variability in LCA of SWCNT for use in electric and hybrid vehicle batteries and makes recommendations for modeling and decision-making using LCA in a multi-criteria decision analysis framework under conditions of high uncertainty.

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Nanomaterials are not technological newcomers. However the use of an integrative concept to describe the diverse and complex array of these very small products is new. This chapter aims to describe some of the attitudes and risk perception studies about these materials. Furthermore it will be presented an empirical research where we will introduce some of the psychological factors that could help in understanding the psychometrics of the nanomaterials risk perception. One could conclude that despite the agreement that there is a widespread lack of knowledge, people can still apply attitudes and deduce a risk perception estimate that differs essentially according to the application domains. Furthermore risk perception about nanomaterials can be easily modified if some new negative phenomena arrive. In this context the design of a good risk communication strategy is particularly important especially because according to many studies and the one to be presented, the nano experts have difficulty in understanding what the factors that underlie lay people's judgments are.