Natural sources of iron and manganese in groundwater of the lower Kelantan River Basin, North-eastern coast of Peninsula Malaysia: water quality assessment and an adsorption-based method for remediation

Shallow groundwater resources in the lower Kelantan River Basin show anomalously high concentrations of iron and manganese. In some cases, other transition metals and metalloids such as arsenic are also present at elevated levels. Coupled mineral stability and aqueous geochemical models were used to determine the possible sources of iron and manganese in the groundwater. High concentrations of dissolved iron and manganese are related to Na-Cl groundwater types. Geochemical modeling of Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ and S²⁻/SO₄²⁻ redox pairs showed that there is a state of redox disequilibrium in the groundwater. Redox conditions control mineral precipitation and dissolution of iron oxy-hydroxides, acid volatile sulphides and subordinate influence from pH fluctuations governs the stability of iron bearing carbonates. Speciation modelling results show the presences of ferric iron complexes and aqueous sulphides, despite supersaturation with respect to hematite, goethite and pyrite. Dissolved manganese in the groundwater possibly originated from the dissolution of amorphous oxide-hydroxides and siderite, having substituted for iron as a minor impurity. The shallow sediments of the Kelantan Basin host high concentrations of iron and manganese bearing minerals that are subject to reductive dissolution during recharge events. Additionally, meteoric recharge is characteristically acidic, destabilizing iron-bearing carbonates phases such as siderite and ankerite. Naturally occurring metal contamination in potable groundwater supplies requires an economical method of remediation to avoid environmental and human health risks. Synthesized magnetic nano-particles created by a one-step method shows effective removal capacity of high iron and manganese concentrations in the groundwater samples at room temperature. The result of this work show that the primary sources of transition metals contamination in potable groundwater is a consequence of natural processes. It is proposed that the nano particulate adsorption method that has recently been developed will provide for an economical method of purification treatment.