Nature Conservation

Starting from the premise that any field requires knowledge of the ideas of its predecessors, this paper points out the contributions of three generations of representatives of the Cluj School to nature conservation. Thus, the careers of A. Borza and E. Racoviþă, who laid the theoretical and practical foundations of this movement, are presented; then, the difficult mission incumbent on E. Pop under the communist regime is emphasized; and the paper ends with N. Boşcaiu, their disciple, who at the impressive age of 80 still ennobles us with his rich experience.

(Jean Massart, a pioneer of Nature Conservation in Belgium). Jean Massart was born in Brussels in 1865. After gaining the title Doctor of Sciences and Doctor of Medicine at ULB, the young graduate was immediately hired as a researcher in Prof. P. Héger’s laboratory of human pathology. In 1892, he was offered a position as an assistant at the world-famous L. Errera Botanical Institute at ULB. From this time, he dedicated most of his time to plant biology. At the age of 32 he became Professor of Botany and started a career of field research without giving up his laboratory activities. Carrying out at the same time his functions of teacher, director of the Botanical Institute, and curator of the State Botanical Garden of Belgium (1902–1905), he started a large study of the Belgian flora, especially aimed at geobotany and plant adaptation to the environment. These investigations led to two works giving a thorough insight into the state of Nature in Belgium at the beginning of the 20th century. The first, of 166 high quality 30 x 40 cm photographic plates, shows the importance given by Massart to natural vegetation but also to rural landscapes and human activities. The second gives an outstanding synthesis of personal data collected during ten years in the field and the main geological, climatic and soil data available at this time, and concerning the 13 natural districts he indicated for the whole Belgian territory. This book points out the progressive outlook of Massart, who achieved an ecological synthesis ahead of his time. In 1912, he published an underlying book on nature conservation in Belgium, then the most industrialized country of continental Europe. His approach is multidisciplinary, taking into account the past (prehistory, history, palaeontology, etc.), present (aesthetics, welfare, natural resources protection and life conditions) and future (sustainable development). Massart can be considered a true forerunner of nature conservation because his ideas still support such European and international programmes. Massart published many other scientific papers across a range of botanical sciences, and also dedicated much time to scientific popularisation.

Professor Renzo Videsott was a pioneer of Nature protection in Italy from 1943 to 1974. His daughters describe his background and early experiences, as rock climber, student of Veterinary Medicine and hunter, which contributed to the development of his future involvement with Parco Nazionale Gran Paradiso (PNGP), the culmination of his interest in mountains and animals, and to which he dedicated his energies until his death. He was active in the field of respect for Nature and conservation in Italy and abroad: in 1947 he took part in the first post-war convention of nature conservationists at Brunnen (CH), in 1948 he founded the Movimento Italiano per la Protezione della Natura (MIPN) and contributed to establishing the Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature (UICN). He achieved many important results for PNGP, particularly for its Alpine Capra ibex, carefully taking notes of all the events and personalities concerned. This is why the Journal of Renzo Videsott (1943-54) can be considered the “Historical Archives” of the protection of Nature in Italy during that period, and should be published.

Governments and local communities throughout Europe (and the rest of the world) are losing interest in conserving and defending Nature. The economic deregulation of recent years, which has been a characteristic of Western Europe and the USA, is jeopardizing our last natural reserves, national and regional parks also. To overcome this negative trend, a massive new effort is needed by the Scientific Community, institutions and universities in the forefront of conservation. They must set up a network of contacts, relationships and inter-related studies, capable of moving public opinion, to initiate a new system of values - and take action as well.

Between the end of the 19th Century and the first decades of the 20th, in the wake of similar North American and European experience, a movement of public opinion began to develop in Italy, aimed at protecting nature and the natural environment. It was principally launched and supported by small scientific societies, often created for just such purposes. The dedicated activity of these early groups succeeded in stimulating public bodies (in particular the Italian National Parliament and Government) to preserve some natural monuments and create the first national parks. Some positive outcomes were thus achieved; and fauna, flora and geological formations started to have a destiny other than mere human spoilage, lack of concern, and destructive threats as a result of ever-increasing industrial activities (such as exploitation of the water resources for hydro-electric dams and power plants) and the occupation of coastal areas for tourism and bathing beaches. At first, nature was merely regarded as deserving protection for “natural beauty” or because it was inherently linked with sites of historical, artistic or literary heritage. Later, nature protection became mostly a means to conserve landscape beauty. At last, starting a new third era, nature conservation began more correctly to be considered as implying the preservation of relevant natural and ecological values. The present paper aims to explain this progressive evolution of both the Italian cultural scene and the actual regulations, thus showing the basic reasons why conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity in Italy has been so long delayed, and still must face so many obstacles.

The spontaneous vernal and pre-vernal flora faces a serious threat from massive harvest by tourists and flower-sellers. This has resulted in an inevitable gradual decrease in plant numbers, even endangering the existence of certain populations. The present paper considers 16 pre-vernal species that have been cultivated and now reproduce themselves in private gardens; it is proposed that 36 wild species be introduced into cultivation and even replanted in their original habitats from where they are starting to disappear. An education programme among local people and decision-makers is needed to stop the intensive harvest of certain plants from their natural habitats.

The north-east of Europe is a territory where latitudinal zonation in distribution of mires and its relation to bioclimatic zones is distinctly pronounced. From tundra to the limit of taiga, polygonal, palsa, aapa mires and raised bogs follow each other in succession. The preservation of mires depends upon the personal initiative of researchers, local administrations and the support of international opinion.

In the Bolivian Andean mountain range there is a series of mesothermic valleys with a particular arboreal flora. This study describes the arboreal and scrub flora of the Camacho river basin, and its distribution dependent upon numerous ecological factors including anthropogenic influence.

The work focuses on the RE.NA.TO Project that proposes guidelines for the preservation of both faunal and floral elements as well as plant communities at high risk of extinction in the Tuscany region. The main goal of the project is to create a Catalogue in which all the information on current and future natural history data will be collected by means of descriptive files and distribution maps including geo-referred GIS data. 472 plants and 84 plant community types were identified as at the greatest danger. In addition, 88 habitats in which these plants and communities are likely to occur were located. The data collected, thanks to this project, will allow a detailed survey of biodiversity in the area and better management of the regional territory.

In the Romanian Black Sea shore area between North and South Eforie, c. 15 km south from Constanþa city, lies a floristically interesting area. Here, on mobile or fixed sand dunes, large populations of many rare psammophilous species occur (Cakile maritima ssp. euxina, Elymus farctus ssp. bessarabicus, Silene thymifolia, Eryngium maritimum, Glaucium flavum, Polygonum maritimum, Gypsophyla perfoliata). Some have sporadically spread in the rest of littoral area. These species are included in different IUCN categories in the Romanian Red Lists. The high percentage of rare and threatened species (18.29%), higher than in other southern protected seashore areas (Agigea, 2 Mai - Vama Veche), demonstrates the floristic importance of this site. In the area studied are also some dune habitat types of European conservation interest, which are included in the Habitats Directive and Bern Convention. The beginning of some building works, even in the dune habitats, threatens with extinction the specific psammophilous flora and plant communities. On the base of this evidence we propose the setting up of a natural reserve in this area, preferably as part of the Natura 2000 protected areas network.

In almost all countries with a well-founded law system, species-targeted conservation has legal support and plays a fundamental role in the protection of the most threatened plants. However, even in countries with a long tradition of plant conservation, there is little knowledge about its effectiveness and there is little or no possibility to compare the results of this kind of protection in different countries. Conservation methods using numerical indicators seem especially not to have been developed enough. To make the strategies of plant protection more effective and efficient, the author attempts to propose some measures for evaluating the status of flora conservation in a given area. The proposed indicators could also be useful in analyses of the results of protection, seen as the synanthropo-dynamic state of the vegetation (e.g. the amount of Red-listed or threatened species). For example, sozophytes as a group of sensitive plants could play the role of indicators of environmental quality. The proposed indicators are as follows: conservation indicator (C), threat conservation indicator (CK), tanatophytisation indicator (R), sozophytisation indicator (W) and conservation effectiveness indicator (E).

This paper describes possible different applications of phytosociology in the conservation of floristic biodiversity. It analyses in detail the occurrence of Red-listed species, so-called sozophytes, in plant communities at different stages of naturalness and degeneration. Based on these analyses, the authors conclude that as a result of distinct transformations of plant cover, endangered species evolve adaptive mechanisms and colonise ecosystem types new for them. Plants can remain in habitats that are not natural for them and can form new syntaxonomic noda. This phenomenon, which could be regarded as a kind of exodus of sozophytes, is very important from both scientific and conservation points of view.

The present work is the result of research carried out within the framework of IPAs project, a practical application of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (2002 Hague) in Romania. The data provided constitute a scientific basis support for enlargement of the national network of protected areas and for selection of Natura 2000 sites in Romania. A significant part is occupied by studies performed in Dobrogea. New information regarding 16 threatened taxa at Global (4 species) or European (12 species) level, that still occur in Dobrogea, are provided.

The present work examines the bryological flora of the “Montagna di Torricchio” Nature Reserve in order to increase knowledge about the biodiversity of the entire area. Specimen collection was conducted over the years 1975–2003 by various authors. The survey revealed 181 bryophyte taxa of which 19 were liverworts and 162 were mosses. In addition, further analysis assessed which families occur in the same proposed categories, and to what degree, in order to obtain more information on their distribution and ecology. The distribution of species frequency by chorological category - cosmopolitan, circumpolar and Eurasiatic - shows that the families richest in species are the most represented in the Torricchio Reserve. The general rate of the percentages of the chorological elements in the reserve’s bryological flora confirms that the temperate element dominates, closely followed by the boreal and oceanic-Mediterranean elements. The factor that promotes the occurrence of the other elements, resulting in a generally higher level of diversity, is the presence of niches with special microclimatic conditions that differ from the surrounding context.

Between 1993 and 1995 I identified in the Pãdurea Craiului Mountains five species new for the Romanian lichen flora. Of these species, four are saxicolous and occur mainly on limestone: Collema subflaccidum Degel., Leptogium teretiusculum (Wallr.) Arnold, Phaeophyscia chloantha (Ach.) Moberg and P. hirsuta (Mereschk.) Moberg. The other species - Parmelina pastilifera - is corticolous and was found on the nutrient-rich bark of old trees (Fraxinus sp. and Acer pseudoplatanus). The specimens are lodged in the Herbarium of the “Alexandru Borza” Botanical Garden, Cluj-Napoca. For each species a description, synonymy, general distribution, ecology and chorology in the Pãdurea Craiului Mountains is given.

Veteran and dead trees at different stages of decay have an important ecological role to play in conserving forest biodiversity and are recognized as Pan-European indicators of a sustainable management. Dying and dead trees, either standing or fallen and at different stages of decay, are valuable habitats (providing food, shelter and breeding conditions, etc.) for a large number of rare and threatened species: saproxylic insects, invertebrates, lichens, bryophytes, birds and mammals. Hollow trees, in particular, provide suitable microhabitats for mammals (e.g. rodent species, squirrels, martens, bat species and wild cats) and cavity-nesting birds (e.g. woodpecker, tit and owl species). In natural forests in Romania, deadwood is associated with several relict, rare and protected animal species (e.g. Rhysodes sulcatus, R. americanus, Cerambyx cerdo, Lucanus cervus, Rosalia alpina, Camponotus herculeanus). Many lichens (Parmelia, Peltigera and Lobaria species) indicate the continuity of natural forests and the presence of more than 20 species of fungi contribute to the ever-present processes of decay. Large quantities of deadwood (50–130 m3/ha) also play a significant role in forest nutrient cycles, carbon budgets, soil morphology and natural regeneration. Natural forests in Romania provide exceptional conditions for research into the ecological role of deadwood habitats.

We describe the biotope conditions, synchorology, floristic composition, coenotaxonomy and syndynamics of three thermophilous community types from SW Romania: Asplenio-Syringetum Jakucs 1959, Syringo-Carpinetum orientalis Jakucs 1959, Syringo-Genistetum radiatae Maloş 1972. The synthetic tables associated with the first two syntaxa contain original data as well as data of other authors. All phytocoenoses studied are characterized by high floristic richness. These three plant associations reach in Romania the northern limits of their distribution. We consider the origin and dynamics of communities for each plant association. Both their high species richness and important ecological function make these shrub communities a valuable natural resource worth preservation.

A series of forest communities from the eastern part of Romania (Moldova) are presented synthetically. Phytosociologically, these communities appertain to the following associations: Aro orientalis - Carpinetum (Dobrescu et Kovacs 1973) Täuber 1992 (typicum subass. nova hoc loco; quercetosum pedunculiflorae Chifu et al. 2002); Dentario quinquefoliae - Carpinetum (Dobrescu et Kovacs 1973) Täuber 1992 (typicum Chifu et Zamfirescu 2001; fraxinetosum excelsioris Chifu et Zamfirescu 2001); Lathyro veneti - Fagetum (Dobrescu et Kovacs 1973) Chifu 1995 (typicum (Chifu 1995) Chifu et Zamfirescu 2001; quercetosum dalechampii (Chifu 1995) Chifu et al. 1999). Floristic analysis reveals the dominance of Pontic and Balkan elements compared to Central European species. The reason for this pattern is the location of the studied communities in the zone where Central European and Pontico-South-Siberian regions overlap. Based on the similarity between them, the relevés studied fall into three clusters that correspond to the three above-mentioned associations of the same coenotaxon - suballiance Aro orientalis - Carpinion. The grouping of Lathyro veneti - Fagetum with Dentario quinquefoliae - Carpinetum relevés results from the overlapping altitudinal distribution of the two forest types. Quercus dalechampii dominance-abundance scores distinguish the communities of Dentario quinquefoliae - Carpinetum, whereas Fraxinus excelsior discriminates between the two subassociations. The communities belonging to Aro orientalis - Carpinetum distinguish themselves through the high cover scores of Quercus robur and Q. pedunculiflora. Furthermore, Quercus pedunculiflora has higher cover scores in southern relevés (Vaslui County), whereas Q. robur dominates in the northern relevés (Iaşi County). The group of relevés of Lathyro veneti - Fagetum is clearly discriminated by the high cover of Fagus sylvatica.

This paper presents a description of vegetation from the Corhan Hill-Sãbed village, Mureş County. The study area is situated in a part of the Transylvanian Depression of special relief. Climate and aspect have determined the development of dry vegetation of the order Festucetalia valesiacae. Two plant associations were identified on Corhan Hill: Stipetum pulcherrimae Soó 1942 and Medicagini minimae-Festucetum valesiacae Wagner 1941. An analysis of these plant associations was carried out, in relation to ecological factors (humidity, temperature and soil). Some rare, endemic and endangered plants of the Romanian flora were identified in this area.

This paper presents the first results of studies of fishpond plant communities of Silesia (SW Poland). On fishponds, many rare and threatened plant associations were found, especially within the aquatic, mud and rush communities. Among the most interesting are: Lemno minoris-Salvinietum natantis, Trapetum natantis, Eleocharetum ovatae and Scirpetum radicantis. The majority of the above-mentioned associations occur only in artificial fishpond reservoirs within the region. Thus, to reach an effective level of conservation, co-operation between biologists and owners, and integration of conservation and agricultural activities, have to be achieved. This would be the only way to stop the impoverishment of the biological diversity of these hydrophilous ecosystems. Also it seems to be essential to establish the legally based protection system for the most valuable fishponds. Phytosociological methods of evaluation were effectively used to find the priority areas.

The landscape and biodiversity of the Saxon villages of southern Transylvania comprise a remarkable fragment of an older Europe, where species-rich plant and animal communities thrive alongside traditional agriculture. Not only are the wildflower meadows, probably the best that survive in lowland Europe, a living link with medieval times, but they are also a genetic resource of forage crops, especially legumes. Within Romania, many of the plants, animals and habitats of the region are not particularly rare or threatened, but from a European perspective their survival in such substantial numbers and extent considerably alleviates their loss elsewhere. Rarity may not always be the best criterion for assessing conservation needs, and a holistic approach is required to conserve this ecosystem in its geographical, cultural and biological entirety. To this end, a consortium of conservation NGOs, in conjunction with the Government of Romania, is working towards the establishment of a Nature Park or similar protected area to conserve traditional villages, countryside and biodiversity. Organic and non-intensive mixed farming, eco-tourism and promotion of village crafts and skills are vital components of the complex jigsaw of sustainable development.

Some characteristics (habitat, distribution, characteristic species, ecological importance, practical use and danger factors) are given of 17 typical treeline biotopes in the Kazbegi region, situated on the north-facing macro slope of the central part of the Main Watershed Range of the Greater Caucasus. The diversity of species composition is mainly due to peculiar structural properties of the vegetation of these biotopes, rather than ecological (altitude, moist or dry conditions,) and anthropogenic (grazing, haymaking) factors. The majority of the studied biotopes are referred to the II stage of hemeroby, but untouched shrub communities (dominated by Rhododendron caucasicum), elfin crookedstemmed birch forests (dominated by Betula litwinowii) and fragments of tall herbaceous vegetation should be referred to the I stage of hemeroby (natural and close to natural). Current global climate change will cause the most drastic changes in moist (tall herbaceous vegetation), snowline (humid broad-leaved meadows dominated by Trollius ranunculinus), broad-leaved mesophilous meadows (dominated by Anemone fasciculata), elfin crookedstemmed birch forest and scrub biotopes. The numerous biotopes are characterized by high sensitivity, which is caused by the following factors: landscape mainly devoid of forests, high degree of relief and, consequently, bare soil cover, low and unstable snow cover, frequent solifluction, etc. The following biotopes should be regarded as priority habitat types: tall herbaceous vegetation, scrub and elfin crooked-stemmed birch forest.

The confluence zone between the Bistriþa and Siret rivers lies in the foothills of the Carpathian mountains. Five reservoirs have been created there for generating electrical energy. The water bodies have a total length of 46.5 km and an area of 5.391 ha (Lilieci: 262 ha - 6 km; Bacãu II: 202 ha - 5 km; Galbeni: 1.123 ha - 7 km; Rãcãciuni: 2.004 ha - 13 km; Bereşti: 1.800 ha - 15.5 km). The number of bird species identified in the area, about 210 in all, represents only 36% of the total. The species that also have in their phenology migratory aspects are in a proportion of 90%. This shows that these lakes are important to the full development of autumn and spring migration in the eastern Carpathians escarpment, for populations in northern Europe. For some species, the zone has begun to represent an important station for wintering. Agglomerations are exceeding over 100,000 individuals for each of the lakes. Over 60% of bird species belong to the European and Transpalearctic fauna, and 20% are Siberian and Arctic. With regard to the importance that these wetlands represent for the bird population of northern and eastern Europe, they have been declared an Important Bird Area.

The paper deals with the status of bird species living in dry lowland grasslands in Italy, many of which are endangered or vulnerable due to land use changes. The main lowland dry grasslands are distributed in four Italian regions: Latium, Apulia, Sardinia and Sicily. Although true Mediterranean dry steppes have been drastically reduced due to agricultural changes and urban development, they still cover 200,000 ha, which are of outstanding importance for maintaining populations of Little Bustard - Tetrax tetrax (2,000–2,500 individuals), Stone Curlew - Burhinus oedicnemus, Bee-eater - Merops apiaster, Calandra Lark - Melanocorypha calandra, Black-eared Wheatear - Oenanthe hispanica, raptors and a significant number of plants and invertebrates.

Conservation in settled fragmented landscapes, especially with climates changing, requires planning as well as physiological information not yet available. In the absence of the latter, climatic envelopes provide an initial means of projecting possible range changes, as well as potential range expansions on other continents. In this paper, climatic envelopes for major European tree species and hypothetical counterparts in eastern North America are evaluated, projected and cross-projected in order to demonstrate a hopefully useful methodology but also to suggest some initial questions of importance to conservation efforts in Europe, especially the Balkan region. Cross-projections of some counterpart species to the other continent are shown and may help improve understanding of limiting mechanisms and values, thus improving the robustness of climatic envelopes under change scenarios. Potential range displacements in Europe are also shown for selected tree species, based on a warming-only scenario (no net drying) that appears plausible, based on new warming estimates.

Vegetation dynamics has long been studied from a deterministic perspective, leading to important concepts like climax, equilibrium and reversibility. In recent decades, the emergence of the theory of chaos has changed our vision of natural laws. New concepts such as non-equilibrium, heterogeneity, disturbance and irreversibility have increasingly become popular. Some ecological successions have even been considered as stochastic and thus their outcome a matter of chance. Here, I briefly review these three paradigms, within the special framework of vegetation typology and conservation ecology. I conclude that all successions are, at least partly, deterministic. The proportion of stochasticity depends mainly on the size and composition of the regional species pool, and is likely to occur in early-successional stages. When the lack of acute disturbance allows a succession to develop, the late-successional stages usually converge toward a ‘strange attractor’, i.e. the climax. Short-term and/or small-scale monitoring are common biases leading to conclude that determinism does not exist in plant community successions.

The paper emphasizes the involvement of modern phytosociology in promoting sensible nature conservation, both from the point of view of the assessment of management plans and for conservation choices and scientific outcomes. It draws attention to the risks associated with a demographic management of plant populations that can conflict with the preservation of the natural equilibrium of ecosystems, in support of enhanced biodiversity.

The paper deals with the anatomy of Glaucium flavum Cr., an endangered species growing in Romania on the shores of the Black Sea. The anatomical features of the root, stem, leaf and fruit pericarp have been described and illustrated in detail using a light microscope. The root possesses a typical secondary structure due to its perennial character. The stem exhibits a primary structure (eustele organization with open collateral vascular bundles). The midrib of both types of leaves is closed and collateral. The strengthening of the blades is given by collenchyma cells. Of particular note are the stem, petiole of the basal leaf and pericarp vascular bundles which are collateral, as in the stem vascular bundles; also the presence of non-articulated laticifers in the stem, pinnatipartite blade and pericarp. The xeromorphic features of this plant are due to its occurrence in dry sandy habitats.

Other conditions being suitable, soil moisture supply is the most important factor determining whether forest or steppe develops on a particular area of land. Supply is limited by dryness, climate aridity, seasonal distribution of precipitation, chemical composition of soil and bed-rock, and economic activity. The speed and direction of changes in steppe vegetation in Mikhailivska Tzilina Nature Reserve were determined through long-term study and analysis of vegetation. Characteristics of forest and steppe ecosystems are given. The main differences in their organization, function, cycling of biogenic elements, and transformation of energy are highlighted. A difference in energy potential drives natural succession from steppe to forest. To conserve steppe, the policy of absolute non-intervention on reserves should be replaced by active management to halt this natural succession.

A simplification from species to functional groups using the concept of clonality is particularly attractive for predictive modelling of vegetation processes and preparing guidelines for nature conservation. This important functional trait based on a modular structure including resource-acquiring units (ramets, feeding sites) and spacers, has been studied in three plant communities (xeric grassland, mesic grassland, and beech forest) under different levels of environmental stress (related to soil moisture and fertility) in the Montagna di Torricchio Nature Reserve near Camerino, Central Apennines, Italy. The study sought to reveal patterns of clonal growth modes (CGMs) in the three plant community types, and to test a series of hypotheses on the importance of selected CGMs along the stress gradient. Clonality was shown to have different importance in the grassland communities, due to differences in the importance of various CGMs (representing syndromes of clonal traits). Below-ground positioning of CGOs, shorter spacers, higher multiplication potential, permanent physical connection between ramets, large bud bank, and increased importance of bud protection were frequently found in water-stressed xeric grasslands, suggesting the adaptive value of these clonal traits. The major differences between grassland communities were due to the dominant CGMs: turf graminoids (with an effective way of protecting growth meristems in dense tussocks) dominated xeric grasslands, whereas rhizomatous graminoids (typical of competitive resource-rich habitats) dominated mesic grasslands. The beech forest had fewer clonal species (67%) and lower CGM diversity. Based on the assumption that different environments promote different selection pressures, the tests revealed the following results: (1) Plants with clonal organs below ground have significantly higher cover values in stressed habitats. (2) Species with short spacers are more frequent in less favourable environments, and their importance is almost ten times higher in the xeric grassland than in the forest (71% to 7.6%). (3) The number of species able to produce numerous ramets is highest in the most stressed habitat. (4) The number of species with a potential for longlasting connection between ramets increases towards stressed environments. In contrast to our expectations, the mesic grasslands (occupying the central position along the studied stress gradient) have the highest number of species with storage organs. (6) In stressed habitats, species with forms of bud protection were the most frequent.

We analysed the relationship between phenology, phytomass temporal pattern and productivity dynamics in two grassland plots in the Marche Region (Central Italy). The plots were placed in grasslands belonging to the same syntaxon, previously defined as Brizo mediae-Brometum erecti using the phytosociological approach. The two sites were chosen at the lowest and the highest altitude within the distribution area of this syntaxon. The analysis showed a clear relationship between the observed variables and other ecological variables, such as climate. This information should be useful to plan future management strategy in the study area.

Based on a previous landscape synphytosociological analysis, the present work intends to test the degree of suitability for the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) of the different Apennine habitats, relating the ecological and structural characteristics of the forest Apennine ecosystems (bioclimate, floristic structure and composition, food availability) with the specific anatomical characteristics of the digestive apparatus and alimentary habits of this ungulate. Although the roe deer is a ruminant, it must be considered a grazing rather than a browsing animal that carefully selects what it ingests, choosing plants or plant parts rich in cellular sap of high protein content, and avoiding, as far as possible, plants with a high content of raw fibre. The data in hand seem to point out a range of suitability for the roe deer of the hilly and low-mountain wooded habitats, among which, nevertheless, remarkable differences in ecological and environmental level of suitability have been recorded. One of the principal limiting factors is the relationship between the availability of trophic resources present at the beginning of the autumn, and the length of the winter period (corresponding to the phase of vegetative dormancy). Also of notable importance are vegetation patches, types of forest management and the different floristic and structural characteristics of the ecotonal belts.

PLANECO is a research project founded by the Italian Ministry of University and Scientific Research in the years 1998–2000. It involves five universities: Camerino, L’Aquila, Pescara, Isernia and Roma 3. Among its goals is the definition of planning criteria for a territory considered as an ecological system, with particular attention to environmental continuity, and including protected areas that are not isolated but linked as components of an ecological network.

This paper sets out our reflections on the reality of relations between nature and society, which will integrate landscapes and their dynamics. The cartography of landscape units takes as its methodological basis a proposition in line with this philosophy and establishes a combined series of analyses, which contemplate structures, functions and dynamics considered in scientific terms, with a bearing on nature and society. Arguing for a synthesis, we can construct the map of landscape units for São Bento do Sapucaí County, which shows groups of spatial elements characterized by groups of attributes. The organization of the legend will explain the methodological position adopted for the study, as well as the reasoning by which the map of landscape units was achieved.

What is the role of environmental management in biodiversity conservation? Why is urban management always linked more to environmental management, and environmental management linked more to urban planning? I attempt to answer this question through some planning experiences in protected areas, where you can find the importance of environmental planning in the processes of natural and cultural resource conservation (Alpi Apuane Regional Park, Monti Sibillini National Park, Cilento Vallo di Diano National Park). Traditionally, there has been a separation between environment policies and urban, territorial and regional policies. On the international stage, these relations are changing; separateness is giving way to integration or convergence. As a key element of individual and social well-being and quality of life, the environment plays an important part in human fulfilment and in reinforcement of European identity. It has an important public interest role in the cultural, ecological and social fields, and constitutes a resource favourable to economic activities, particularly tourism. Unfortunately, developments in agriculture, forestry, industrial and mineral production techniques and in regional planning, town planning, transport, infrastructure, tourism and recreation have often damaged the environment and landscapes, or obliterated their distinctiveness. Environmental policies are becoming territorialized, in the sense that they have to address the problems, threats, needs and expectations of the development of the regions or territorial contexts in which they are situated. At the same time territorial policies are induced or forced to recognize an important role for environmental policies and in particular those for protected areas.

The Botanic Garden of Modena (Northern Italy) was founded in 1758 by Duke Francesco III d’Este. Its original functions of “Hortus simplicium” evolved over more than two centuries of its academic history, until its present structure. Today, like the majority of the University Botanic Gardens in Italy, the Modena Botanic Garden is involved in several projects for plant conservation and ecosystem management that are compliant with the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. Even if its original location in the centre of the town does not permit enlargement or structural modifications, it does, however, greatly help the education activities carried out in the Garden, while the conservation activities are developed outside the Garden by means of numerous co-operations with Parks, natural reserves and other administrative bodies or institutions. The Botanic Garden of Modena recently started various in situ/ex situ integrated conservation projects with Parks and other land-managing institutions. Even if such projects involve only a limited number of Endangered and/or Vulnerable species/populations, some interesting and noticeable results have been achieved. Plantlets (e.g. indigenous Orchidaceae) are often obtained by the way of non-conventional techniques such as in vitro culture. Co-operation with local Museums has provided interesting sources for future action: the collections that they preserve are mostly related to circumscribed local areas or well-defined periods, so they are the source of fundamental information about past situations. Investigation on flora and vegetation and the monitoring of plants and plant communities, carried out in protected areas, cooperating with the National Forestry Service, is a very important source of knowledge to improve conservation and verify the effectiveness of conservation actions.

In Italian protected areas, traditional silviculture has not always given the rightful priority to the objectives of conservation and natural improvement of the forest heritage. In addition, approaches to silvicultural management vary quite significantly. In some cases, for example in the Abruzzo National Park, most of the forests are left to free evolution or at least treated by natural criteria in cutting, thus obtaining significant improvements in population structure and biodiversity; in other cases, for example, the Monti Sibillini National Park, no particular conservation measures have been adopted, and thus currently there is no substantial difference between usage inside and outside the protected area. Of particular importance is the possibility of and need to create A Zones in the Parks (whole reserves) to maintain some significant sections of forest, excluding any anthropogenic intervention, in order to allow conservation of all extant forest associations and thus their species, phytosociological and genetic diversity. Hence, forest assessment projects in protected areas must take into account the economic exigencies of the resident population, but also be attentive to identifying areas of the forest where the complete biological cycle of the wood can happen, and the different associations can be maintained, promoting the adoption of strictly natural silvicultural criteria. In the current conditions in Italy, this is possible only if we enact a policy of renting or, preferably, public acquisition of wooded areas with the highest degree of natural conditions, as well as wooded areas that are degraded today, for which a recovery process is timely.

The study presented is based on an investigation conducted among rural participants concerned with nature and landscape. They belong to the scientific world, administration, the social and political world, and local management such as farmers or foresters. Information provided by this investigation has been supplemented by a bibliographical survey, while the evolution of biodiversity and the rural areas in the past is being characterized by an historical approach. These various methods show the spatial continuity of rural areas. This continuity also exists in the way in which the various functions recognized for rural areas are taken into account. The integration of nature, landscape and environment by the producer can be remunerated by the society, in order to compensate for the loss of earnings due to practices more respectful for the environment. In certain extreme cases, one can consider that the function of production is additional while the service to the community is the principal activity. Various levels of nature’s integration in production functions of the rural areas imply compensations adapted to the effort provided and to collective et patrimonial interest. Most of the actions of interest for landscape and biodiversity result in the support of ecotones, particularly rich in species diversity. Their maintenance or restoration makes it possible to materialize continuity of the rural areas, to recreate a mosaic of landscapes and to support the special environments.

In the lignite mining area of the Rhineland (Germany) some wet forests, valuable from the point of view of ecology and nature conservation, have been affected by the drainage caused by the large and deep mining pits. In order to restore these drained forests and to protect others from drainage, an irrigation project was started in 1987. Preliminary investigations had begun in 1982. The aims of the total project were to document the changes in vegetation and soil caused by drainage, to test the suitability of different methods of irrigation in order to restore forests affected by drainage, and to document and evaluate the development of the forests under the influence of irrigation. The drainage of the different Alno-Ulmion communities and of the Carici elongatae-Alnetum, all typical for undrained areas, leads to Alnus glutinosa-forests dominated by Deschampsia cespitosa, by Urtica dioica or by Rubus fruticosus agg. In some cases Betulo-Quercetum alnetosum is the final result, in other cases Alnus glutinosa-forest with a Carpinion-like herb layer. Seepage of water at the edge of the valley has proved to be an adequate method to re-transform drained alder forests into wet alder forests. However, the habitat conditions achieved up to now by irrigation seem to support the development of riparian forest (Alno-Ulmion) more than alder swamp (Carici elongatae-Alnetum).

A small and relict population of Silver Fir (Abies alba Miller) in the Apuan Alps (Tuscany - Italy) has been confirmed and immediately analyzed in order to evaluate its level of autochthony. Some 19th-20th century floristic evidence, along with an extraordinary 17th century cartographic document, testify to the presence of Silver Fir in the same place. Results obtained from chloroplast genome analysis have been compared with Alpine and Apennine population data in order to identify any genetic relationship. The phylogenetic tree obtained shows a strong affinity between the Apuan populations and those in the Apennines, confirming with the historical floristic documents the autochthony of the Apuan fir population. Conservation activities have consisted, in situ, in improving vegetation habitats, through thinning surrounding woods, which will allow natural regeneration. Ex situ, near the Forest Garden of Camporgiano (Lucca), saplings have been obtained from seeds of the autochthonous Silver Fir population; later, these were planted out close to the relict population, so constituting a new experimental conservation nucleus. Thus a new nature conservation activity for a relict habitat, of priority on the 92/43/CEE Directive (“Apennine beech forests with Abies alba and beech forests with Abies nebrodensis“), has been initiated.

This paper presents preliminary results of an interdisciplinary research project entitled “Sustainable groundwater management in hydrogeological and ecological sensitive areas of the North Sea Coast”2. For years different and contrary concepts of the water supply and distribution authorities and nature conservation had led to conflict situations, which could result in the endangering especially of wet biotopes. These plant communities of wet dune slacks are strongly related to the water table, hence they can tolerate fluctuations only over a certain range without damage. Therefore, the main goal of the project is to develop a useful guide for sustainable groundwater management. Within the project, detailed investigations were carried out on the Frisian islands of Norderney and Langeoog as well as on the mainland in the Harlinger Land at the boundary between coastal marshland and the Pleistocene hinterland of N.W. Germany. Using a variety of scientific methods (phytosociology, groundwater-monitoring, GIS mapping, cellular automata model), it was possible to construct a comprehensive picture of threshold values or tolerance ranges of the water table for the characteristic vegetation units of the conservation areas and adjacent landscapes.

At present, in the desert zone of Russia, nature monuments, national parks and reserves have been established by the efforts of scientists and public ecological organizations. But these protected areas are aimed at the conservation of azonal vegetation (meadows, forests and rare but not desert plants), not zonal deserts. Reserves are needed in order to conserve and restore deserts.