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Open Access 2025 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

New Chinese Socialism and Building Industrialization: Exploring Chinese Socialist Architectural Design Strategies in the Late 1950s Through Architectural Journal

verfasst von : Xiaohan Chen, Yiping Dong, Peta Carlin

Erschienen in: Advances in the Integration of Technology and the Built Environment

Verlag: Springer Nature Singapore

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Abstract

Dieses Kapitel untersucht die architektonischen Gestaltungsstrategien der späten 1950er Jahre in China, einer Zeit, die durch den Slogan "Kunst ist der Politik untergeordnet" und die strenge ideologische Kontrolle der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas geprägt war. Das Architectural Journal (AJ) spielte eine zentrale Rolle bei der Gestaltung und Reflexion des architektonischen Diskurses jener Zeit, indem es sich an der Staatsideologie orientierte und die "nationalen, wissenschaftlichen und populären" Werte der sozialistischen Kultur förderte. Inhalt und Design der Zeitschrift wurden als Reaktion auf die Technische Revolution signifikante Veränderungen unterzogen, mit einem Wandel hin zur Industrialisierung des Bauwesens, zur Mechanisierung und zur Erforschung neuer Materialien und Baumethoden. Das Kapitel vertieft sich in konkrete Konstruktionsfälle, wie die vorgefertigte Betonschalendachkonstruktion, um die praktischen Anwendungen dieser technologischen Fortschritte und ihre Rolle bei der Darstellung der Überlegenheit des sozialistischen Systems zu veranschaulichen. Die Analyse der inhaltlichen Arrangements und Layoutänderungen von AJ bietet eine einzigartige Perspektive darauf, wie die redaktionellen Entscheidungen der Zeitschrift das politische und gesellschaftliche Umfeld jener Zeit widerspiegelten. Das Kapitel beleuchtet auch die internationalen Einflüsse auf das Design von AJ, insbesondere den Einfluss sowjetischer und rumänischer Architekturzeitschriften. Durch eine detaillierte Auseinandersetzung mit diesen Themen bietet das Kapitel einen umfassenden Überblick über die architektonischen Entwicklungen im China der späten 1950er Jahre und ihre anhaltende Relevanz im Bereich des modernen architektonischen Denkens.

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1 Introduction

In the first ten years of New China (1949–1959), under the slogan “Art is Subordinate to Politics” and “Architecture is Art”, the architectural design thinking was closely adhering to the political consciousness, with a dedication to manifesting the socialist cultural values of “national, scientific, and popular”. Meanwhile, this was also the period when the Chinese Communist Party exercised the strictest ideological control over the public and intellectuals. In the early 1950s, the institutional projects imitated the Qing Dynasty “Big-roof” motif and classical appearance was popular in presenting the national identity. Nevertheless, owing to concerns related to excessive wastefulness, the “Big roof” design approach was severely criticized by the government during the “Anti-Waste Campaign” of 1955. Consequently, the architectural sphere witnessed a substantial discourse on issues about architectural design ideologies.

Since the socialist transformation had been considered complete in 1956, 1957 was also a vital year for the new China to officially start socialism. Meanwhile, on 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world’s first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. During the Cold War period, the successful launch of Sputnik 1 also marked the beginning of the space race, which represented the competition in science and technology [1]. It seems that the demonstration of scientific and technological achievements was an opportunity to prove the system’s superiority and help the new country gain identification from both home and the world. As a country on the same socialist road, this event greatly encouraged China. In January 1958, under the slogan of “More, Quicker, Better, Cheaper”, the Technical Revolution was promoted all over the country.

The Technical Revolution, redirected societal attention towards the domain of science and technology, thereby imparting substantial influence on the field of architectural design. The principal discourse within the architectural sphere also shifted towards building industrialization and the exploration of expeditious and scientifically grounded construction methodologies. Amidst these transformations, Architectural Journal (AJ), functioning as the primary professional Chinese architectural media, undertook a pivotal role. Devoted to aligning with the prevailing state ideology and adhering to “the general line,” AJ played a critical role in shaping and disseminating architectural discourse consistent with the ideological framework of the era. Additionally, it served as a platform where diverse ideas and perspectives converged and intersected.

The following section discusses the fact that in late 1957–1958, AJ made significant changes in its layout and content arrangements in response to the changing political situation and social environment. The mechanization of construction, new materials, and structures replaced the debate about architectural theories and thoughts as the new discussion topics for the architectural profession. In view of architectural criticism during this period, it was clear that the advances in materials and structures did not only mean breakthroughs in construction technology but also entailed a demonstration of the progressiveness, productivity, and superiority of the socialist system. The mechanization of construction represented the party’s socialist cultural philosophy of sympathizing with working people in their fight for happiness. Architectural industrialization, therefore, was an expression of the “national, scientific, and popular” Chinese socialist identity.

2 Architectural Journal in the Late 1957–1958

2.1 Content Arrangements

In the late 1950s, the Technical Revolution’s impact on AJ resulted in its changes to the content arrangements and the general layout. In the first instance, from Issue 7, 1957 to Issue 5, 1958, the journal’s content gradually came to focus on the discussion of technology, standardized residential design, and residential planning. Each issue was organized in a “thematic” way according to architectural categories. Discussions about buildings such as theatres, schools, and monumental buildings were gradually reduced, whilst articles about factories, architectural technology, residential standards, and urban planning were increased. This was especially evidenced in the first issue of 1958, where the editorial office of AJ published its plan for the first half of 1958. The plan was originally laid out as follows: Issue 2 – Industrial architecture, Issue 3 – Residential architecture/bungalows/shops and canteens, Issue 4 –Theatres/cinemas/clubs and schools, Issue 5– Industrial buildings and railway stations, Issue 6–Hospitals, sanatoriums, and agricultural buildings. However, it was changed after each issue was released. For example, the fourth issue was intended to discuss theatres/cinemas/clubs and school buildings but focused only on residential design, while the fifth was almost entirely about factory design. Meanwhile, from Issue 7, 1957, the number of articles relating to architecture in the Soviet Union and other socialist countries increased significantly. Particularly, in Issue 10, the journal published four articles “Celebrating the 40th Anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution”, calling on architects to learn from the Soviet Union.

Although no record showing why the changes were made, considering the social and political situation, it is understandable that the increase in the reporting of information from socialist countries reinforced AJ’s identity as a socialist academic journal. The editorial team turned the focus of the journal onto technological issues and residential design to answer the call of the Technological Revolution.

2.2 Design of the Layout and Cover Pages

The changes can also be reflected in the design of the table of contents and cover pages. Since the first issue of 1958, AJ added Russian and English translations to its catalogue. These changes indicate that AJ was circulated, or that there was a plan to circulate it, beyond China’s borders in 1958.

AJ also made changes to its cover page. When it was founded in 1954, the cover page was completely blank except for the text and the frame. In the first issue of 1958, AJ started to use images on its cover page, and the image was the design of the community housing in Shanghai’s Hudong Residential Area, presented only in white with black lines. Interestingly, the cover page editions of AJ were typographically similar to the cover of the Romanian architecture journal Architectura RPR of the same period. This phenomenon is more obvious from the cover page of Issue 5, 1958 of AJ (see Fig. 1.), which features a factory design in a simple white line draft with a blue background. This layout is very similar to the first issue of Architectura RPR in 1957, which uses a simple white line to illustrate an architectural perspective.

Fig. 1.

The cover page of Issue 5, 1958 AJ. Photo taken by author.

According to scholar Tudor llie, the visual evolution of Architectura RPR was a result of fusing the Soviet magazine Architekturea SSSR, the guiding model during the magazine’s early socialist years, and the Romanian traditionalist pre-war Architectura. The initial plan and austere composition of the cover page is a replica of the 1951 Architekura SSSR cover, itself based on a previous design from 1936 [2]. Thus, it is highly possible that just like Architectura RPR, AJ’s cover page was also influenced by Architekturea SSSR. And the cover of the Soviet magazine was imitated to show AJ’s alignment with the socialist vision, with modernised graphic design further communicating the new technological spirit. Meanwhile, the cover images during the entirety of 1958 were consistent with the content, basically revolving around the theme of the technological revolution and concerned with industrial architecture, residential design, and planning (Fig. 2). In addition to the line drawings, illustrations and real photos also appeared on the cover. Bright colours were also boldly adopted making the cover eye-catching. These changes seemed to show the building and construction capacity of the new socialist country to the world.

In short, in the political situation of 1958, AJ made a significant change to both its content and design layout. The focus of architectural criticism turned to the standardization of design and the introduction of new materials and technology. At the same time, the colourful and eye-catching cover pages seemed to announce the efficient construction ability of this socialist country to the world. It is noteworthy that although the technological revolution was launched as a political task under the advocacy of the central government, architects did not treat industrialization as a rigid political task. In the context of “science and technology reflecting the superiority of socialism”, they coordinated the new materials and technologies properly according to the actual situation in China. These design projects successfully explored a new way of showcasing the “scientific” of Chinese socialist architecture through the lens of building industrialization. Among them, the Chinese architect’s use of the prefabricated concrete shell roof structure was a particular case.

Fig. 2.

The collection of the cover pages of AJ from Issue 1 to 12, 1958. Diagram made by the author.

3 The “Scientific” Architectural Design: The Prefabricated Concrete Shell Roof Structure in AJ as a Case Study

3.1 Prefabricated Concrete Shell Roof Structure in AJ Late 1950s

Before the mid to late-1950s, most single-story factory buildings in China were built with brick and timber. The roofs of these buildings not only consumed a large amount of timber but were also expensive. During the Technical Revolution, the prefabricated concrete shell roof structure, which was economical, stiff, and easy to construct, was widely used in large-span buildings such as factories and stadiums. This new structure reduced the cost of the design projects and helped to shorten the construction period. Meanwhile, in contrast to their abuse of the “big roof” in the early 1950s, architects did not blindly apply the concrete shell roof to any buildings but designed the structure according to the necessities. The appropriate use of prefabricated concrete shell roofs showed the “fast” and “economical” characteristics of socialist culture.

The first case in AJ of the concrete shell roof was the design of the Beijing Gymnasium in 1953 [3]. The building was designed by the famous architect Yang Xiliu and was completed in 1955. As the building was designed before 1955, it adopted a large-span arch steel structure but looks solid and heavy. The traditional ornament was applied to the façade. The north gate was also decorated with patterns imitating the form of traditional arches, which caused a certain amount of waste.

But things were different in 1958. In AJ Issue 9, 1958 published the design of the Beijing glass factory. It is clear to see from the photo that there were two different kinds of concrete shell structure roofs used for the factory. One was a thin concrete shell roof designed longitudinally across the highest part of the factory, and big glass windows were set in the concrete frame. The roof of the lower part of the factory consists of a corrugated thin shell roof structure with small spans divided according to the column spacing. Architect Xu Binghua pointed out in the article “A Large Prefabricated Shell Warehouse”, that the increase in cost per unit caused by the increase in the span is much cheaper than the increase in the number of thin shells due to the reduction of the span. For economic reasons, the span should be enlarged as much as possible, and the length should be shortened [4]. Therefore, the combination of two different thin-shell roofs in the glass factory could achieve the structural needs of large spans while saving costs. Without any special decoration on the facade, the design fully adopted scientific thinking based on the consideration of economy and applicability. Ornament was excluded from the design and the structural elements were fully exposed.

A similar roof structure could also be found in other public buildings in the same period. For example, the Shancheng wide-screen cinema in Chongqing, designed by the Chongqing Institute of Architecture and Building Engineering in 1959, shows evidence of the use of a similar strategy in both the design of the roof and façade. The plan of the building was designed according to Morphological features. The main entrance adopted the use of five arched shells, which were completely exposed and formed a part of the façade. This was combined with the six columns to form a simple colonnade, which contrasted with the solid walls on both sides. Another group of three arched shells was designed to emphasize the auditorium [5]. The architects adjusted the proportions of the thin shell structure to make the colonnade look more in harmony with the whole building. In addition, to avoid direct sunlight in summer, the windows on the front elevation were constructed with frosted glass. The walls were not overly decorated but were simply painted in light beige for a bright and warm effect.

The cover page of Issue 12 featured Shangdong Gymnasium with its large-span shell roof (see Fig. 3.) [6]. The Shangdong Gymnasium consisted of three separate stadiums: the arena, swimming center, and practice court. The arena had a regular rectangular plan. The central auditorium adopted a 48 m by 48 m reinforced concrete double-curved shell structure, which was the largest span in China at that time. Large glass windows were connected underneath the shell roof. The entire façade of the building was very simple, and there were five floor-to-ceiling windows in the main entrance, allowing the audience to directly view the interior of the entrance hall. The secondary entrance faced a green park, and the windows opened in the same way, allowing the audience to enjoy the outside scenery directly. The rest of the walls were made of pale-yellow stone without extra decoration. The design of the gymnasiums not only shows the development of building technology in the technological revolution but also shows the architects’ increased focus on the practical aspects of the design and the more scientific and rational application of materials and technologies in an economical and applicable manner.

Fig. 3.

The cover page of AJ Issue 12, 1958. Photo taken by author.

3.2 Prefabricated Elements and the Mechanization of Construction

What needs to be mentioned is that the prefabricated elements also directly reflected the mechanization process of socialist construction. At the beginning of the 1950s, prefabricated construction was not very popular in China, and normally all the construction work was done in situ. When the infrastructure construction was gradually processed, prestressed prefabricated concrete started to be used in building construction to replace the steel that China lacked. By the end of 1957, a number of prefabrication factories had been built. According to scholar Ji Guohua, 73 in total, among which 40 were newly built (in 1957) [7]. In 1958, confronted with the need for fast construction, this technical advance was widely promoted and used correspondingly in construction. Most of the factory design cases reported in AJ in 1958 used a prefabricated concrete structure. The Ten Great Buildings built in 1959 also adopted prefabricated design construction. The 13-story Hotel of Nationalities, for example, deployed a prefabricated concrete frame structure. It was New China’s earliest high-rise building and reflected the maturity of the construction industry.

The role of machinery also played an important part in technological advancements. The existing machinery and scattered innovative tools led to different levels of mechanization and semi-mechanization according to the individual construction process. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, the ratios of mechanized earthwork, concrete mixing, and component hoisting by architectural enterprises had increased and reached 22.9%, 68.8%, and 53%, respectively, by 1959 [8]. The increase in the level of mechanization reduced the heavy manual labour of the workers, which not only reflected the advanced socialist manufacturing capabilities but also conceivably reflected the Party’s care for laborer.

4 Conclusion

During the period of the Technical Revolution, the reports in AJ changed direction, with the identity of socialist architecture being formally constructed through the relationship between building industrialization and the superiority of the socialist social system. It was a result of the international and national political situation, in which science, technology, and efficient productivity were recognized as a fundamental way to prove the superiority of competing social systems.

Through the analysis of the relevant articles in AJ, it can be seen that the development of mechanized construction and the use of advanced technologies such as prefabricated concrete shell structures not only showed the construction ability of the new nation but also reflected a more scientific and reasonable architectural design and construction process. This was further emphasized in AJ not only through its content but also through its updated and thoroughly modernist graphic design.

Chinese architects’ exploration of issues pertaining to a new Chinese socialist architecture indicates that the concept of Chinese socialist architecture is not a fixed model. The criteria developed in response to the question “What is Chinese socialist architecture?” at the governmental level changed in response to the socio-political and economic factors and further influenced architects’ practical explorations through architectural criticism in AJ. These various socialist critiques of architecture theory and practice all went hand in hand with the construction of a modern scientific, economic, and cultural state. Notably, these unique manifestations of Chinese modern architectural thought continue to maintain their relevance and applicability, even after the passage of seven decades.

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