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2019 | Buch

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Office Buildings

Health, Safety and Environment

verfasst von: Prof. Dr. Pranab Kumar Nag

Verlag: Springer Singapore

Buchreihe : Design Science and Innovation

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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Über dieses Buch

This book brings together concepts from the building, environmental, behavioural and health sciences to provide an interdisciplinary understanding of office and workplace design. Today, with changes in the world of work and the relentless surge in technology, offices have emerged as the repositories of organizational symbolism, denoted by the spatial design of offices, physical settings and the built environment (architecture, urban locale). Drawing on Euclidian geometry that quantifies space as the distance between two or more points, a body of knowledge on office buildings, the concept of office and office space, and the interrelationships of spatial and behavioural attributes in office design are elucidated. Building and office work-related illnesses, namely sick building syndrome and ailments arising from the indoor environment, and the menace of musculoskeletal disorders are the alarming manifestations that critically affect employee satisfaction, morale and work outcomes. With a focus on office ergonomics, the book brings the discussion on the fundamentals of work design, with emphasis on computer workstation users. Strategic guidance of lighting systems and visual performance in workplaces are directed for better application of ergonomics and improvement in office indoor environment. It discusses the profiles of bioclimatic, indoor air quality, ventilation intervention, lighting and acoustic characteristics in office buildings. Emphasis has been given to the energy performance of buildings, and contemporary perspectives of building sustainability, such as green office building assessment schemes, and national and international building-related standards and codes. Intended for students and professionals from ergonomics, architecture, interior design, as well as construction engineers, health care professionals, and office planners, the book brings a unified overview of the health, safety and environment issues associated with the design of office buildings.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Office and Office Space

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. The Concept of Office and Office Space

Abstract

Today, an office has been transformed as an organizational space—an entity of corporate symbolism, denoting (i) spatial environment at which humans perform work, (ii) physical environment in and around an organization, and (iii) built environment (architecture, urban locale). The explosion of information technology and the surge of knowledge work have brought in the conceivable blurring of boundaries of the public and the private spaces, and thereby pushing the action into home, transit, and leisure life. The corporate world is gradually retreating from the uniformity of common areas, like multiple rows of closed offices, and moving towards a more creative workplace configuration that supports flexible, group-oriented, and remote working styles. Research in pattern language as a design methodology emphasizes office and office building design with consideration on the physical and socio-psychological factors, such as community connections, work areas on wheels, environmental and spatial metaphors, and playfulness at work. The embodiment of this introductory chapter is a brief comprehension of the emergence of the office concept through ages, and transformation into its contemporary entity.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Chapter 2. Spatial and Behavioural Attributes in Office Design

Abstract

The interrelationships of spatial as well as behavioural components, such as the task design factors, group psychosocial traits have direct impacts on office design and workplace effectiveness. The office spaces, such as the enclosed cellular offices, open-plan office, co-working or shared space, the enclosures around a work area, and interpersonal distance, refer to as the recognized characteristics of organizational culture. That is, office space and workstation design, spatial density and proximity, biophilia and aesthetics influence the work process in the office and also occupant’s behaviour and performance. This chapter elucidates the psychosocial constructs of work environment relating to communication and social networking among co-workers for positive outcomes, whereas privacy is a multi-layer construct in the process of information control. Stress management, personal control, sense of belonging, territoriality, control and supervision are the identifiable dimensions that influence occupants’ innovation and collaboration, well-being and job satisfaction in the office environment.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Building and Office Work-Related Illness

Frontmatter

Chapter 3. Sick Building Syndrome and Other Building-Related Illnesses

Abstract

Sick building syndrome (SBS) and building-related illnesses are omnipresent in modern high-rise buildings. The SBS is a complex spectrum of ill health symptoms, such as mucous membrane irritation, asthma, neurotoxic effects, gastrointestinal disturbance, skin dryness, sensitivity to odours that may appear among occupants in office and public buildings, schools and hospitals. Studies on large office buildings from USA, UK, Sweden, Finland, Japan, Germany, Canada, China, India, Netherlands, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Thailand, substantiate the occurrence of SBS phenomena. The accumulated effects of a multitude of factors, such as the indoor environmental quality, building characteristics, building dampness, and activities of occupants attribute to SBS. A building occupant manifests at least one symptom of SBS, the onset of two or more symptoms at least twice, and rapid resolution of symptoms following moving away from the workstation or building may be defined as having SBS. Based on the peer-reviewed documentation, this chapter elaborates the magnitude of building-related health consequences due to measurable environmental causations, and the size of the population affected. The mechanisms and causative factors of SBS and illnesses include, for example, the oxidative stress resulting from indoor pollutants, VOCs, office work-related stressors, humidification, odours associated with moisture and bioaerosol exposure. Related regulatory standards and strategies for management of SBS and other illnesses are elaborated.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Chapter 4. Musculoskeletal Disorders: Office Menace

Abstract

Worldwide, work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are the primary cause of physical disability, today. There are (a) nerve-related (carpal tunnel syndrome, thoracic outlet syndrome), (b) tendon-related (epicondylitis, tenosynovitis, De Quervain’s syndrome), (c) bursa-related ( bursitis), (d) circulatory ( Raynaud’s disease), and (e) muscle-related ( tension neck syndrome) disorders. The injuries from repetitive stressing of a body part encompass several terminologies, such as Repetitive Stress Injury/Disorder, Repetitive Strain Injury/Disorder, and Repetitive Motion Injury/Disorder. Overuse Syndrome is a condition when a person has overused a part of the body to the point of injury. Cumulative Trauma Disorder occurs through the buildup of trauma over time. Office work and working with computers are common risk factors behind the prevalence of MSDs, as the fall out of long hours of uninterrupted keying, unsupported forearm posture, non-optimal location of the mouse, monitor height, and insufficient work surface. A survey questionnaire is included to explore commonly occurring work-related MSDs, and ergonomics incompatibility and risk factor(s) resulting in different nature of MSDs.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Office Ergonomics

Frontmatter

Chapter 5. Fundamentals of Office Ergonomics

Abstract

Office managers, safety, and health personnel recognize the imminent necessity of making workplaces comfortable and safer. The federative science and technology of ergonomics (deriving from the Greek word, ergon, epyov—work, and nomos, voµoς—principle or law) has emerged as an interdisciplinary area of study of the man–machine–environment system. The chapter includes a historical trend of emergence of the discipline, with noticeable opening up towards systems orientation, drawing the role of humans in complex systems, the design of equipment and facilities for human use, and environments for comfort and safety. Since the conventional office environment and traditional office organization are fast replaced by the newer office environment, such as VDT workstations, operator–equipment–environment–customer interaction, Office Ergonomics is shaped as a newer domain, both in abstract and in examples. The chapter identifies multiple stressors in computer and office work, such as task-related (cognitive), work-schedule, environmental, psychosocial, role, career-related, traumatic, and organizational stressors. These stressors lead to a multitude of organizational issues, such as absenteeism, decreased employee performance, errors and accidents, healthcare costs, workplace dissension.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Chapter 6. Ergonomics of Computer Workstation

Abstract

Office goers have been compelled to or increasingly constrained to remain seated in a chair–desk complex. Assessment of seat dynamics and user-seat compatibility has been examined, using approaches such as anthropometric, biomechanical, electromyographic and stabilometric analysis, comfort rating and materials construction. This chapter describes biomechanics of sitting, analysis of sitting modes and seated features, and aspects of Balans chairs. Further, it elaborates the ergo-design characteristics of an office chair, including different chair tilting mechanisms. Methodological details of the simulated seat–desk system are included for human–seat–desk interface analysis, covering the effects of the slope of the seat pan, backrest angles, height of armrest, upright and slouch sitting, about body force distribution and muscle activation. Several general risk factors, such as seating system, repetitive use of keyboards/mouse, chair–desk with or without adjustable armrests, supported/unsupported forearm and wrist, are all interconnected and compelling components of workplace constraints in computer work. Discussion includes options of good job design, periodic task rotation, rest breaks, stretching exercises in relieving the physical and mental strain of computer operators.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Chapter 7. Strategic Office Lighting

Abstract

Lighting design in office buildings is determined by basic human needs, such as visual comfort, visual performance, and visual safety. This chapter compiles indices to evaluate the luminous quality, visual comfort, and performance in the built environment. Illuminance-based indices are used to arrive at threshold values of a luminous environment to consider as comfortable. Indices related to glare and colour rendering indicate visual performance regarding whether a physical quantity matches to a reference value. Indoor daylight performance is evaluated by assessing the indoor daylight availability and artificial lighting by field measurements, software simulation and estimating energy implication. Daylighting fundamentals, such as daylight illuminance, spatial daylight autonomy, the intensity of visual comfort, are described. The suitable colour scheme has positive effects on human emotions, work performance, and productivity. Indices indicating the colour rendering properties of a light source are the CIE colour rendering index, gamut area index, feeling of contrast index. The phenomenon of glare defines the sensation produced by luminance within the visual field that is much higher than the luminance eyes can adapt, and thereby cause annoyance and visual discomfort. Direct glare occurs due to light sources within the field of vision, whereas indirect glare may result from reflections of light sources or surfaces of excessive brightness, and veiling glare from polished, shiny or glossy surfaces, computer screens. The glare indices, such as British glare index, CIE glare index, discomfort glare index, visual comfort probability index combine the contrast between the luminance of glare source to that of background luminance, about the position of the observer.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Chapter 8. Visual Performance in Office

Abstract

Optimal use of lighting has physical, physiological, and psychological effects on employee comfort, satisfaction and visual performances, and overall organizational productivity. Inappropriate lighting characteristics, such as lighting patterns and distribution, glare, flicker, colour appearance, culminate into one’s physical discomfort, visual fatigue, cognitive dysfunctions, and negative influence on satisfaction and task performance. This chapter describes the effects of lighting conditions on visual performance and anomalies. Prolonged viewing of display terminals and other hand-held electronic devices results in eye strain, ocular discomfort, diplopia, blurred vision, which are collectively referred to as computer vision syndrome. Contemporary research on the practices of office lighting systems, quality of lighting, and colour characteristics of office interiors is included in the chapter. A questionnaire is included to evaluate satisfaction and physical comfort, about the effects of lighting environment in office buildings. With reference to standard EN 12464-1:2011, this contribution compiles recommended levels of illuminance, glare, uniformity of light and colour rendering quality, as related to the type of area, task, or activity.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Building Bioclimate—Indoor Environment Quality

Frontmatter

Chapter 9. Bioclimatic Approach: Thermal Environment

Abstract

A sustainable building design seeks to accommodate the elements of bioclimatic perspectives, namely to make the building eco-friendly, focusing on human-friendliness, and energy-friendly to achieve energy efficiency and energy conservation. This chapter brings together the facets of bioclimate, about evaluating thermal comfort of building occupants. Review of human thermal indices, and its derivations, such as (a) direct indices referring to primarily climatic parameters, (b) rational indices, based on the analysis of human heat balance, and (c) thermal perception indices may be useful in making warmth assessment for the indoor and outdoor environment. There are two distinct approaches of thermal comfort assessment, such as the steady-state and non-steady-state methods. The former deals with heat transfer avenues based on thermophysiological models and standards, and the later considers adaptive thermal comfort, aiming at real-world dynamic environmental situations. In evaluating the building microclimate, environmental, and analytical modelling tools (such as RayMan, SOLWEIG, BOTworld, ENVI-met) are widely practiced. In hot climates, the urban heat island phenomenon exemplifies the potential risk of inhabitants to heat exposure-related morbidity and mortality. Research studies explore the effectiveness of heat island countermeasures, such as use of evaporative cooling from ground-level ponds, roof ponds, surfaces wetted by wind-driven rain, green roof, controlling solar gains by applying high-albedo materials at horizontal surfaces, strategic trees and vegetation covers, cool pavements around buildings.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Chapter 10. Characteristics of Indoor Environmental Quality

Abstract

Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in an office/non-residential building is determined by environmental aspects, covering the physical (lighting, acoustics, and thermal conditions), chemical (indoor air quality), and biological (microorganisms) origins. This chapter focuses on the assessment of chemical and physical parameters, particulates including PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and aerosols, CO₂, CO, NO_x, VOCs, black carbon, radon concentration, climatic factors, acoustic and lighting, and also the characterization of fungal and other microbial contaminants. Hundreds of VOCs have been identified in indoor air. Different range of concentrations of the VOC classes indicates source apportionment of indoor VOCs. The VOCs provoke symptoms typical of SBS, including mucous membrane annoyance, skin irritation, exacerbation of asthma, fatigue, liver, and kidney damage and increased cancer risks. A section is dedicated to lAQ management, concerning guidelines of exposure included in green building rating schemes. In managing IAQ, the preferred pathways are (i) emission source control, aiming at choosing low-emission indoor materials, building construction and renovation practices, (ii) ventilation to provide for appropriate indoor/outdoor air exchange, and (iii) periodic indoor air monitoring to comply with the given threshold.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Chapter 11. Assessing IEQ Performance in Buildings

Abstract

Building characteristics, indoor physical layout, and environmental quality have plausible links on occupants’ health, comfort, satisfaction, and productivity. Assessing IEQ performance in office buildings involves objective and experimental measurements and subjective methods. The chapter summarizes post-occupancy survey instruments (such as BOSTI, MM040 Questionnaire, Building Use Studies—US EPA BASE, EU project HOPE) in evaluating building energy consumption, maintenance systems, and occupant comfort after the built facility has been occupied. The prEN 16798-1 (2015), ISO 7730 and US ASHRAE 55 (2010)/2013 are the guidance documents on IEQ imperatives related to the design and assessment of energy performance of buildings. The recommended four categories defined in prEN 16798-1 (2015) to express levels of occupants’ expectation are uniquely structured, elaborating its utility in design, analysis, and operation of energy-efficient and comfortable buildings. This chapter describes the emergence of IEQ index and mathematical derivation of sub-indices for thermal comfort, acoustic comfort, lighting comfort and IAQ, to arrive at an evaluative picture of IEQ in a cluster of office and non-residential building. Further, assessment of IEQ encompasses evaluating health effects (such as SBS, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, asthma) and occupant’s performance and productivity.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Chapter 12. Ventilation in Office Buildings

Abstract

Ventilation in a building is accomplished through natural ventilation or mechanical/forced air distribution systems. This chapter elucidates various aspects of natural ventilation systems, such as wind action, buoyancy ventilation (stack ventilation), air wells, façade designs, ventilation openings, and also the good practices of natural ventilation in buildings. Despite preference towards natural ventilation in buildings, use of mechanical cooling in hot and humid climates is inevitable to meet requirements of the occupants. The chapter discusses the HVAC system component in meeting design goals of user thermal comfort, improved IEQ, and cost-effective operation in a building environment. The ventilation systems ( mixing ventilation, displacement ventilation, personalized ventilation, impinging jet ventilation, local exhaust ventilation, piston ventilation, protected occupied zone ventilation) are chosen depending on the pollution load, the location of the air supply/exhaust device and the mixed use of natural and mechanical ventilation. Issues related to ventilation design recommendations cover methods of measuring of ventilation, fan-forced ventilation, infiltration and exfiltration of air, ventilation maintenance, indices to evaluate air distribution, air exchange effectiveness and about levels of air change in building facilities. This chapter has a dedicated section on ventilation design and analysis software and simulation tools that are useful in airflow modelling, contaminant distribution, temperature and humidity distribution, and thermal comfort in and around buildings.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Building Energy Systems—Standards and Codes

Frontmatter

Chapter 13. Lighting Systems

Abstract

Selection of the lighting system, namely general lighting, directional lighting, localized, and local lighting, is to make the task area illuminated as uniformly as possible. This chapter describes the factors involved in the selection of light sources, including incandescent lamps, fluorescent/high-intensity discharge lamps, and light-emitting diodes, used in offices and commercial establishments. Details include the type of lamp, power consumption, luminous flux and efficacy, light colour, colour rendering, and base of the lamp. There are issues with lighting controls, such as localized manual controls, time controls, occupancy controls, movement about a building, photoelectric switching, dimming controls, and emergency lightings. The chapter includes a multitude of lighting-related standards that are categorized as lighting energy, lighting design, indoor lighting, workplace-specific lighting, emergency lighting, outdoor lighting, and lighting standards for industries. The chapter compiles energy and lighting software (such as DOE-2, EnergyPlus, DeST), which have been practiced to predict daylighting, electrical lighting performance, energy simulation, thermal performance of buildings, design energy efficient building envelopes and HVAC systems and depict compliance of building energy codes.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Chapter 14. Energy Performance in Buildings: Standards and Codes

Abstract

The global energy needs are ever expanding, and the building stock in the world takes a 40% share of energy consumption. The energy use by the non-residential buildings is averaged to about 150 kWh/m², and therefore, any endeavour towards energy-efficient buildings is beneficial to the total energy saving and mitigating climate impacts. This chapter covers national-level regulatory provisions and energy-efficient building codes and programmes, including European Union energy performance of buildings directives, ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1:2016 and country-specific (China, India, Brazil, South Africa) energy conservation codes. The discussion also includes to EU directives on energy-efficient product development, ENERGY STAR program in establishing energy efficiency criteria of products, electrical appliances, lighting types, and the Top Runner program of Japan to improve the energy performance of electrical products. A checklist is included for measuring state energy code compliance concerning building energy consumption. ISO EN 13790:2008 is one of the primary standards applicable to buildings at the design stage and to existing buildings. The chapter includes the specified stepwise calculation procedures for building energy use for space heating and cooling.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Green Office Building

Frontmatter

Chapter 15. Green Building and Assessment Systems

Abstract

Globally, the buildings stock contribute to climate change impacts by consuming nearly 40, 25, and 40% of the energy, water, and resources, respectively, and are responsible for 1/3rd of the total greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter elaborates green building initiatives for sustainable development in construction, with apparent health, environmental, social, and economic benefits. The green building practices recognize the measures and approaches for (a) site and structure design efficiency, (b) efficient use of energy, water, and material resources, (c) reduction of environmental degradation, (d) enhanced IAQ, ventilation, thermal comfort, daylighting, and acoustical environment, and (e) optimization of operation and maintenance. The strategies and technologies that may be deployed in a green building project are structured explicitly in the chapter, covering specific application for sustainable site design, energy and environment, water quality and conservation, materials and resources, and indoor environmental quality. A variety of building assessment tools (e.g., BREEAM, LEED, HQE, DGNB, CASBEE, Green Star, Green Globes, SBTool, BOMA BESt, and other national schemes) are available today, which are collated herewith. The maturity of the assessment schemes manifests as acceptance and certification of building typologies; some of the green building rating schemes have a relatively more significant presence in building accreditation across the countries. The World GBC is an initiative to creating a single common assessment method for sustainability in construction, strengthening strategies for promoting green building in the local building policies and encouraging collaboration in the building sector.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Chapter 16. Building Sustainability: Credit Rating Criteria

Abstract

Nearly 600 tools and dimensions are available in evaluating building sustainability and lifecycle phases of buildings. A global set of benchmark parameters would be unanimously agreed upon in establishing a unified building rating, with due account of national and regional characteristics, climatic and environmental conditions, sociocultural structure, and building stocks in the region. This chapter peeps through the building environmental assessment tools, structural content, and parameters for different building typologies, approaches in the evaluation and accreditation, and summarization indicators of assessment. Most rating schemes seem to adopt a similar approach and categories of assessment. However, they differ regarding the framework, weights, scoring methods (e.g., point-based or weighted approach) and procedure of performance evaluations. Different scores of the categories yield the total final score, and accordingly, buildings can be certified (four levels in LEED certification, i.e., certified, silver, gold, and platinum; six levels in BREEAM certification, i.e., unclassified, pass, good, very good, excellent, and outstanding). Many popular systems, such as BREEAM, HQE, DGNB, TQB, conform to guidelines of the CEN/TC 350 that included quantifiable environmental and social indicators of sustainability assessment. Keeping in mind that the professionals would require orientation on components of the assessment scheme, quantitative valuation of a building project using BREEAM and LEED is extensively discussed herewith for easy understanding and implementation.

Pranab Kumar Nag

Backmatter

Titel: Office Buildings
verfasst von: Prof. Dr. Pranab Kumar Nag
Verlag: Springer Singapore
Electronic ISBN: 978-981-13-2577-9
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-2576-2
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2577-9

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