1 Introduction
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An immediately applicable location tracking algorithm that does not require any modifications to the client or network side
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The algorithm does not depend upon any prior training via, e.g., offline fingerprinting, drive-testing, or crowd-sourced measurement campaigns
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Confirmed to work for a large set of users, nationwide, and in real time based on an experimental validation instead of merely relying on simulations
2 Related work
2.1 GPS enabled
2.2 Infrastructure enabled
3 Methods
3.1 Network
3.2 Grid
3.3 Experiments
Scenario | Distance [km] | Duration [min] | Average speed [km/h] |
---|---|---|---|
Walk (urban) | 8 | 84 | 6 |
Bicycle tour (urban) | 8 | 25 | 19 |
Car ride (urban) | 39 | 25 | 47 |
Walk (rural) | 8 | 101 | 5 |
Bicycle tour (rural) | 8 | 22 | 22 |
Car ride (rural) | 19 | 28 | 41 |
Car ride (highway) | 48 | 36 | 80 |
3.4 Measurement data format
3.4.1 Propagation delay
3.4.2 Measurement report
3.5 Cellular network data
4 Location tracking algorithms
4.1 Cell-ID
4.2 Centroid
4.3 AMT: antenna, map, and timing information-based tracking
4.3.1 Phase I: temporary estimation
4.3.2 Phase II: route mapping filter
5 Results and discussion
5.1 General
Scenario | Algorithm | μ [m] | σ [m] | 50th [m] | 95th [m] | #Updates [-] | Update time [s] | Update distance [m] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Urban, on foot, 8 km, 5 km/h, standby | Cell-ID | 410 | 287 | 342 | 1006 | 96 | 51 | 76 |
Centroid | 333 | 226 | 276 | 767 | ||||
TE | 270 | 338 | 150 | 744 | ||||
AMT-RT | 150 | 95 | 125 | 351 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 126 | 76 | 119 | 262 | ||||
PF | 165 | 112 | 139 | 391 | ||||
2. Urban, on foot, 8 km, 5 km/h, streaming | Cell-ID | 453 | 324 | 390 | 1042 | 234 | 21 | 32 |
Centroid | 349 | 240 | 292 | 791 | ||||
TE | 205 | 208 | 151 | 517 | ||||
AMT-RT | 141 | 82 | 130 | 325 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 128 | 82 | 115 | 303 | ||||
PF | 158 | 110 | 137 | 367 | ||||
3. Urban, by bike, 8 km, 18 km/h, standby | Cell-ID | 586 | 346 | 540 | 1127 | 48 | 32 | 150 |
Centroid | 426 | 270 | 407 | 923 | ||||
TE | 246 | 223 | 172 | 611 | ||||
AMT-RT | 189 | 139 | 158 | 452 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 132 | 83 | 119 | 296 | ||||
PF | 193 | 122 | 160 | 486 | ||||
4. Urban, by bike, 8 km, 18 km/h, streaming | Cell-ID | 380 | 238 | 305 | 880 | 55 | 26 | 127 |
Centroid | 277 | 169 | 226 | 644 | ||||
TE | 187 | 254 | 150 | 384 | ||||
AMT-RT | 136 | 78 | 131 | 317 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 122 | 80 | 112 | 301 | ||||
PF | 147 | 103 | 131 | 331 | ||||
5. Urban, by car, 39 km, 47 km/h, standby | Cell-ID | 982 | 587 | 1030 | 2013 | 58 | 46 | 600 |
Centroid | 808 | 629 | 661 | 2013 | ||||
TE | 441 | 486 | 290 | 1589 | ||||
AMT-RT | 370 | 485 | 243 | 1311 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 306 | 291 | 220 | 1012 | ||||
PF | 471 | 425 | 372 | 1322 | ||||
6. Urban, by car, 39 km, 47 km/h, streaming | Cell-ID | 955 | 630 | 901 | 1989 | 91 | 33 | 411 |
Centroid | 780 | 549 | 645 | 1966 | ||||
TE | 382 | 398 | 257 | 1093 | ||||
AMT-RT | 336 | 431 | 241 | 844 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 217 | 141 | 200 | 467 | ||||
PF | 427 | 439 | 273 | 1181 | ||||
7. Rural, on foot, 8 km, 5 km/h, standby | Cell-ID | 1937 | 1388 | 1764 | 4096 | 92 | 66 | 81 |
Centroid | 1269 | 983 | 1056 | 3389 | ||||
TE | 559 | 577 | 433 | 1469 | ||||
AMT-RT | 336 | 268 | 276 | 955 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 294 | 222 | 275 | 821 | ||||
PF | 385 | 313 | 344 | 1176 | ||||
8. Rural, by bike, 8 km, 22 km/h, standby | Cell-ID | 2393 | 1310 | 2578 | 4096 | 37 | 36 | 196 |
Centroid | 1175 | 659 | 1100 | 2443 | ||||
TE | 522 | 326 | 430 | 1309 | ||||
AMT-RT | 305 | 166 | 311 | 709 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 268 | 127 | 243 | 491 | ||||
PF | 391 | 208 | 389 | 778 | ||||
9. Rural, by car, 19 km, 41 km/h, standby | Cell-ID | 1297 | 1131 | 972 | 3630 | 43 | 39 | 380 |
Centroid | 746 | 490 | 670 | 1803 | ||||
TE | 488 | 594 | 308 | 1385 | ||||
AMT-RT | 280 | 224 | 188 | 733 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 188 | 186 | 129 | 589 | ||||
PF | 401 | 357 | 280 | 904 | ||||
10. Highway, by car, 48 km, 80 km/h, standby | Cell-ID | 1059 | 702 | 1021 | 3096 | 59 | 35 | 775 |
Centroid | 833 | 537 | 790 | 1851 | ||||
TE | 352 | 454 | 231 | 1224 | ||||
AMT-RT | 235 | 232 | 167 | 826 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 138 | 92 | 122 | 277 | ||||
PF | 395 | 341 | 283 | 1253 | ||||
Average over all scenarios | Cell-ID | 1045 | 694 | 984 | 2298 | 81 | 38 | 283 |
Centroid | 700 | 475 | 612 | 1659 | ||||
TE | 365 | 386 | 257 | 1032 | ||||
AMT-RT | 248 | 220 | 197 | 682 | ||||
AMT-NTC | 192 | 138 | 165 | 482 | ||||
PF | 313 | 253 | 251 | 819 |