Perovskite Solar Cells

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as one of the advanced technologies within the photovoltaics sector, characterized by their exceptional efficiency, customisable properties, and straightforward manufacturing processes. The distinctive structural and optoelectronic characteristics of perovskite materials, including high absorption coefficients, extended carrier diffusion lengths, and adjustable bandgaps, render them highly suitable for next-generation solar energy applications. Over the past decade, PSCs have achieved remarkable progress in power conversion efficiencies rising from just 3.8% in 2009 to over 26% in recent years. This book chapter investigates the progress and innovations in PSCs, covering aspects such as perovskite material, device design, and performance enhancement. Here discussion undergoes significant advancements in interfacial engineering, and approaches to improve stability and scalability in production. Particular attention is given to environmental issues, such as lead toxicity and durability in outdoor conditions. Here, by analysing the current advancements and prospects, this overview seeks to offer meaningful insights into the transformative capabilities of PSCs and their contribution to a sustainable energy future.

Perovskite materials are of interest in device applications due to their multifunctional properties. Perovskite materials crystallize having the chemical formula ABX₃, where A and B are two cations and X is an anion that bonds to both and can be C, N, O, or halogen. Perovskite materials display a wide variety of properties and applications. Physical properties of perovskite materials strongly depend on the synthesis methods. In this chapter, we will discuss in detail the perovskite materials explored for applications in solar cells, their properties, classifications, and different synthesis methods/techniques for their possible applications in the devices. The impact of synthesis methods on physical properties of perovskites and hence the performance parameters with respect to solar cells have been discussed.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have gained popularity in the energy storage area owing to their ease of manufacturing, extended diffusion lengths, cost-effectiveness, and excellent efficiency. Notably, the power conversion efficiency of PSCs has reached an impressive 25.7% using FAPbI₃ as the active layer. Current research is focused on enhancing the open-circuit voltage and fill factor through the utilization of alternative interfaces, charge-selective contacts, and innovative perovskite material shapes. Grain size, homogeneity, and covering area are important factors affecting PSC performance, and they all have a major effect on the perovskite solar cell's power conversion efficiency (PCE). Moreover, the stability and degradation mechanisms of these devices are closely associated with their structural design, highlighting the importance of tailored device architectures. This book chapter highlights the advancements in the structural development of PSCs, including the implementation of advanced interfacial layers and their impact on performance, while also addressing the challenges that continue to impede the efficiency of PSCs.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a promising photovoltaic technology due to their high photovoltaic performance and low production costs. Charge transport layers are often essential to generate high-performance PSCs, yet the high cost and risk of instability of these layers make it difficult to produce efficient and stable PSCs on a large scale economically. Therefore, among various structural configurations, PSCs without a hole transport layer (HTL) introduce a unique approach that simplifies the cell architecture, reduces manufacturing cost, and facilitates the fabrication process. A lot of research is currently going on to design and fabricate HTL-free PSCs and about 20% power conversion efficiency (PCE) has been achieved to date for the same. After 1000 h of continuous illumination, it successfully maintained 90% of the initial PCE, confirming its enormous practical application soon. Similarly, a PSC design without an electron transport layer (ETL) has also been proposed, and 23% PCE has been reported to date. This chapter delves into the basic principles, recent advancements, and cost analysis of HTL- and ETL-free PSCs. In addition to the difficulties associated with HTL- and ETL-free PSCs, the directions for further research and development in this field of PSCs have also been outlined.

Currently, the perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have materialized out as a next-gen source of energy in the area of photovoltaic technology. Considering their cheap cost and producing high power, the commercialization of PSCs devices has become crucial. However, addressing stability in these cells has now become a current issue before its commercialization on large scale. A proper choice over deposition of top electrodes on the perovskite layer plays very vital role for maintaining the stability of device over longer period of time. The rear electrode plays vital role in producing stable PSCs. This book chapter reports the study on the comparison of various rear electrodes (metal electrodes, transparent conductive oxides (TMO) based electrodes, conductive polymers, and carbon-based electrodes) on the basis of their cost, efficiency, and stability. This chapter concludes the benefits and limitations of using rear electrodes materials in PSCs for practical device application.

The recent developments in perovskite photovoltaics, a cutting-edge technology praised for its high efficiency and low production expenses, have seen considerable progress. However, using perovskite solar cells on a large-scale faces several challenges, including lowering production costs, producing large-area panels, maintaining high production rates, maintaining environmental concern, and achieving high efficiency in converting sunlight to energy. Taking all these into considerations, this chapter delves into the advancements in material science, manufacturing methodologies, and device performance while pinpointing key challenges like stability, environmental impact, long-term durability, and reproducibility. It also gives a clear look at the current state of perovskite photovoltaics and offers ideas for overcoming the challenges to make them commercially viable. The chapter highlights the market potential of perovskite photovoltaics by detailing both the progress made and the ongoing challenges. It also outlines a roadmap for forthcoming research and development efforts in this field.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have attracted global attention due to their remarkable efficiency gains, increasing from 3.8% in 2009 to 26% today, driven by the exceptional properties of perovskite materials such as excellent light absorption, high charge-carrier mobility, and long lifetimes. Metal halide perovskites, including methyl ammonium lead iodide, offer the potential for low-cost, scalable solar technologies. However, the primary challenge lies in their instability and degradation, particularly under moisture and environmental exposure, limiting their operational lifespan to well below the 10-year requirement for commercial viability. The soft, ionic nature of perovskite materials complicates efforts to enhance long-term stability. Current research focuses on structural modifications, advanced charge transport materials, and improved encapsulation techniques to address these challenges. This chapter examines key factors influencing PSC stability, highlights recent advancements, and explores future directions, emphasizing encapsulation’s pivotal role in achieving durable and commercially viable devices while inspiring further innovation in this transformative field.

The increasing energy demand and the environmental crisis caused due to the unconventional means to fulfil these demands have urged the human race to develop certain technologies based on the utilisation of renewable and sustainable energy sources. The cleanest source of renewable energy is solar energy; this suggests that the photovoltaic application is one of the most promising and dependable way to overcome the energy needs of our planet Earth. However, the solar cells generated on the principle of light to electricity conversion is still lacking an efficient, stable and low-cost materials system for this application. The PSCs formed using perovskite materials, having high absorption coefficient, low binding energy, tunable band gap and exceptionable structural and optical properties, have obtained an efficiency from 3.8 to 25% in a very short span of time, but still there are certain factors which are detrimental in its commercialisation, i.e. stability and toxicity due to lead. Many researchers are focussing on fabricating lead-free stable perovskite solar cells. There has been a number of research work in the last decade incorporating multiferroics as a light absorber in perovskite solar cells. This chapter showcases the properties of perovskite multiferroics, advancement in the field of multiferroics based lead free perovskite solar cells, their challenges and future insights.

Halide perovskites have attracted widespread attention over the past two decades owing to excellent charge carrier dynamics and photovoltaic properties. The conversion efficiency of solar cells based on these materials has reached up to 26% in the past years making them the leading materials in photovoltaics today. Enhanced performance and diversification into different types of solar cells have opened new interest in low-bandgap perovskite-based solar cells. This chapter explores the latest developments in the area of low-bandgap perovskite solar cells detailing the different materials involved, the device architecture, and the factors determining performance enhancement. The constituent elements involved in perovskite engineering is discussed, including formamidinium-based perovskites, cesium-based perovskites, lead–tin double perovskites, and mixed halide perovskites. The device design strategies are elaborated covering sequential deposition, additive engineering, interfacial and bandgap engineering, and tandem configurations. Finally, the performance enhancement approaches and optimization schemes involving controlling the defect density, improving charge extraction, reducing recombination losses, and creating multi-junction arrangements are reviewed further to provide a holistic impression on the latest updates on low-bandgap perovskite solar cells.

Solar photovoltaics, particularly organic/inorganic halide-based perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with high efficiency and cost-effective solution processing, have shown immense potential in harnessing renewable energy to various cause and sustainable economy in recent decades. Though the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of existing PSCs geared up to 26.7% steadily with some fraction of improved stability to earlier ones, there are still some untraceable challenges regarding the upscaling and stability of these promising perovskite-based solar cells. The present chapter highlights the recent developments in PSCs to their peer fabrication, performance, and commercialization. In addition, the chapter also provides in-depth knowledge of various factors affecting solar cell efficiency with possible remedies such as by using two-dimensional (2D) materials as electrodes, additives, and charge transport layers to overcome them. Therefore, this chapter will be helpful to understand the importance of 2D materials, particularly electrode materials and additives, and the existing charge (electron–hole) transport to enhance the power conversion efficiency of perovskite with relatively improved stability of solar cells from laboratory to commercial applications.

In this chapter, future prospects of perovskite solar cells development using solar energy and their opportunity and possible challenges during the large-scale energy production have been discussed. As the demand, the future of solar cells holds immense promise in revolutionizing energy production. The path way of the deployment of solar energy in future to achieve the target of sustainable goal up-to 2035 has been demonstrates. The review of research work done to improve the perovskite solar cell efficiency and future scope of work in milestone to design the solar cell have been summarized. The requirement of advancement in the solar cells as photovoltaic (PV) cells which has significant importance to enhance in efficiency, durability, cost reduction, and scalability at large scale has been discussed. The next-generation PV technology, perovskite-based solar cell, and their system offer to resolve efficiency and manufacturing cost problems against conventional energy sources. The technological challenges deterring the large-scale development of perovskite solar cells including intermittency, grid integration, storage solutions, and material sustainability have been discussed. The supportive policies, market incentive, and demand for the adoption of perovskite solar energy at large scale have been emphasized. The future scope of solar energy and possible solution of the challenges are described in details.

The perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have attracted considerable interest and potential commercial application as lead-based PSCs due to high efficiency and low manufacturing cost. On the other hand, the presence of lead (Pb) in the perovskite structures poses major risk factor in terms of environmental and human health. This chapter focuses and summarises the available acquaintance on Pb toxicity in PSCs, concentrating on physical and chemical properties of Pb in those materials, its environmental hazards, and future perspectives for both solar cell industry and the global ecosystem. The pathways through which Pb could potentially leach out of the perovskite materials throughout the entire life cycle of the product, from manufacturing to operating, how the product is disposed of and the risk of pollution to the environment are also explored. This chapter has also evaluated the existing methodologies for dealing with Pb toxic effects including encapsulation methods and substitutive techniques aiming to develop Pb-free substitutes. In addition, however, as these methods alone will not be sufficient and then outlined what kinds of research will be needed to overcome these issues in the future, in particular, how the safety and sustainability of perovskite solar devices can be improved. This chapter highlights the necessity of cross-disciplinary approaches to allow the full potential of PSCs to be achieved without degrading the environment and human well-being.

Perovskite–perovskite tandem solar cells exhibit a cutting-edge performance in optoelectronics technology, promising to revolutionize the photovoltaic community with their tunable bandgaps, exceptional efficiency and potential for cost effective production. In this chapter the principles, unique material characteristics and the functioning of perovskite solar cells (PSC) were explored. The design and structure of tandem setups is such that, two perovskite layers with different bandgaps are layered to enhance light absorption and charge collection capabilities over a larger range of the solar spectrum. The chapter also reviews recent accomplishments, stability studies and scalable manufacturing methods for tandem devices and the advancements made in power conversion efficiencies, surpassing 30% recently. This chapter also presents case studies of appreciable effective perovskite–perovskite tandem solar cells and their ongoing research, commercialization and development of this these solar cells for day to day industrial uses. PSCs may become favorable choice for high quality solar cells due to their higher absorption spectrum (~2.23 eV) when compared to their silicon counterparts (~1.48 eV). The flexibility in adjusting the bandgap of perovskite–perovskite materials enables the optimization of tandem cell architectures, further enhancing their performance. Various methods to enhance the carrier diffusion length of narrow bandgap cells and reduce voltage loss in wide bandgap cells is also discussed. Perovskite–perovskite tandem solar cells have different challenges such as stability and degradation problems, interface engineering difficulties, lead toxicity issues, and scalability obstacles. The challenges, current approaches and future research directions to address them are discussed for rapid commercial deployment.

The perovskite-silicon tandem solar cells (PSTSCs) have gained a lot of attention since they have the potential to revolutionize entire photovoltaic industry. They utilize the proven performance and stability of silicon solar cell along with high efficiency of the perovskite materials. It is anticipated that this combination will outperform single-junction silicon solar cells in terms of efficiency and increase the accessibility and competitiveness of solar energy. Single-junction perovskite solar cells have achieved the power conversion efficiency (PCE) above 26% while silicon solar cells have over 25% but it is only in the tandem arrangement that the Shockley–Queisser efficiency limit was surpassed recording PCEs of 33%. Yet, concerns toward stability of perovskite materials are still hindering the possibilities of high efficiency and durable PSTSCs. This chapter aims to analyze the trends and developments in field of PSTSC, covering last ten years and presenting in detail the state of the art, persisting issues, and manufacturing processes of tandem solar cells. Moreover, in this context, the chapter presents existing and new strategies to tackle these issues, with particular regard to material stability, scalability, and market penetration. Finally, this chapter sets forth a vision for the future of efficient, scalable, and profitable PSTSCs.

To fulfill the global demand of fuel, the generation of fuel must be from renewable sources of energy such as solar radiation. Halide-based perovskite (HLP) is one of the materials which utilizes maximum of irradiant solar radiation and can drive water splitting and CO₂ reduction processes in an efficient way. The HLPs are generally used in the form of perovskite solar cells or as such to enable these reactions. In this chapter, we provide the basic understanding for the utilization of HLP for water splitting and CO₂ reduction to generate valuable chemical energy using HLP-based solar cell devices. The different strategies such as photocatalysis using HLP particles, photoelectrode using HLP in photoelectrocatalysis and photovoltaic cell driven electrochemical process for generation of chemical energy are discussed in detail. Further modifications in the strategies of utilization of HLP itself and perovskite solar cells for chemical fuel generation are presented. In this chapter, we present the discussion on the utilization of HLP in its usual form and solar cell devices fabricated using HLP for chemical energy generation.

In recent years, perovskite absorbers have emerged as a promising class of materials for next-generation photovoltaic devices due to their exceptional light-harvesting properties and tunable bandgaps. The important feature of the perovskite absorbers is that they can be easily modified to improve stability and achieve optimum performance. Thus, with ongoing research and development, we can expect high-performing perovskite solar cells in the coming years that are efficient and affordable. For the development of high-performing and cost-effective perovskite absorbers, the deposition methods play a crucial role in advancing perovskite solar cell technology. This chapter offers a detailed look at the different methods used to create perovskite layers, from traditional solution-based techniques to newer methods like vapor deposition and hybrid approaches. It explains each technique’s basics, benefits, and drawbacks and discusses how the conditions during deposition can affect the perovskite film’s structure, appearance, and optoelectronic properties. Additionally, the chapter also examines the challenges and future directions in optimizing deposition processes to achieve high-efficiency and stable perovskite solar cells, providing a valuable reference for researchers and engineers working in this rapidly evolving field.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have become a progressive photovoltaic technology because of their remarkable optoelectronic properties and superior power conversion efficiency (PCE). PSCs have made remarkable strides in scalability and PCE. However, this photovoltaic technology still faces several significant obstacles that need to be overcome before they can be widely used commercial applications. Enhancing compatibility with current industrial photovoltaic standards, addressing lead toxicity, creating scalable and economical manufacturing processes, and boosting long-term operational stability are some of these difficulties. This final chapter evaluate the development of PSC research, highlighting significant breakthroughs and pointing out outstanding issues. It offers a comprehensive viewpoint on the prospects and avenues for upcoming innovations, including investigating environmentally friendly and lead-free substitutes, incorporating perovskites with tandem architectures, and developing recycling and life-cycle assessment techniques. To support global renewable energy goals, this chapter aims to motivate researchers and stakeholders to close the gap between scientific discovery and the sustainable commercial deployment of PSCs by imagining these next steps.