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Erschienen in:
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2022 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

3. Play and Disabilities

verfasst von : Serenella Besio

Erschienen in: Robot Play for All

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

The UN Convention on Children’s Rights has stated the right to play for any children, including children with disabilities. For them, play possibilities may be affected by not only the lack of tools to play with, considering the specific impairments, but also by the need for the presence of peers and caregivers to play with. Above all, their right to play may be denied by the unavailability of adequate play contexts, lack of methodological knowledge as well as unawareness of the importance of play. Not only children with disabilities but also adults with developmental disorders often do not have access to play, while play may have a relevant role in their life, as for everybody. Playful activities may improve the motivation to participate in therapies since play is an intrinsic need for everybody. Moreover, play for the sake of play, independently from therapeutic protocols, may make interesting aspects emerging, as well as functional evolution. Appropriate design of playful activities may obtain important improvements but needs to consider the different impairments. In this chapter, we motivate the need of play for everybody, we review how the different types of play may find obstacles in the different types of impairments and we discuss how these obstacles could be removed.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Play and Games
Nächstes Kapitel Playful Robots
Fußnoten
1
In 2017, during the Triennial World Conference held in Calgary, the Action has been attributed the International Play Association Award “in recognition of their implementation of the Article 31 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child” http://​www.​ludi-network.​eu/​successful-stories.
 
2
This part of the text is inspired by Besio [69].
 
4
The psychiatrist Stuart Brown is the researcher who first highlighted the risks related to play deprivation; he studied the possible psychological and affective consequences after the collection of more than 6,000 individual interviews with play details. Despite they were not conducted on a rigorous methodological basis, he sustains that the volume of the information allows credible hypotheses. His conclusion is that “sustained, moderate to severe play deprivations particularly during the first ten years of life, appear linked to major but virtually omnipresent emotional disregulation”. He then states the need for the development of basic science of play and play deprivation [117].
 
5
The breadth of the literature in the field and of its various lines of study has been demonstrated in the previous chapter. As to the associations, it is worth mentioning here the International Play Association (IPA; https://​ipaworld.​org) and the International Council on Children’s Play (ICCP; www.​iccp-play.​org).
 
9
This work elaborated the first international framework for disability, and it produced the International Classification of Impairment, Disability and Handicap (ICIDH; WHO, 1980). https://​apps.​who.​int/​iris/​handle/​10665/​65990.
 
11
Born in the sociological area, the Disability Studies originated in the eighties as a critical academic perspective, after the Disability Rights Movement of the sixties; they share the core theme of their studies, the working methodology, based on a participatory model, as well as the multidisciplinary approach. Research and political action have always been intertwined in their evolution.
 
12
The definition of disability conceived by the UNCRPD is the following: “persons with disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which when interacting with various barriers, may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others”. This definition, according to Kazou [379], is closer to the definition provided by the WHO than it is to the conception of disability supported by the social model.
 
13
Some parts of this paragraph have been inspired by Besio and Bianquin [71].
 
18
According to the International Standard Organization (ISO standard 9999:2016), AT concerns “Assistive products for persons with disability, as a group of technologies including devices, equipment, instruments and software, especially produced or generally available, used by or for persons with disabilities for different purposes”. The Global Cooperation on Assistive Technology (GATE) initiative has been recently established by WHO to support spreading information and access to AT: https://​www.​who.​int/​news-room/​feature-stories/​detail/​global-cooperation-on-assistive-technology-(gate).
 
19
The right of children with disabilities to education: A rights-based approach to Inclusive Education. Position Paper www.​unicef.​org/​ceecis/​IEPositionPaper_​ENGLISH.​pdf.
 
20
See also Sect. 2.​10.​2.
 
21
See definition on Sect. 2.​2.​5.
 
22
See Sect. 2.​9.​2, particularly the TUET tool.
 
23
See also Sect. 2.​10.
 
24
See Sect. 2.​6.​3.
 
25
This paragraph is also inspired by Besio and Amelina [70].
 
26
Between motricity and mind, there is a complex interrelation, which could be described as cyclic: a movement can exert some consequence on the surrounding environment, and due to the perception of these consequences, new, modified movements can be produced; this relationship appears very clearly in a newborn [37]. According to this approach, it is not the movement that satisfies the mind’s needs, but it is the mind that performs the actions [503]. Some authors recently sustain that motor control resides in the nervous system, body, and environments “viewed as dynamical systems in continuous interaction”[710]:3.
 
27
Some Italian researches have highlighted the high presence (the two-third) of an intellectual disability in children with CP with a mean lower performance of one standard deviation [175]. According to the clinical literature, slowness of thought processes and inertness of thinking are typical of children with CP. Insufficiency of the highest cortical functions can also be shown in a delayed development of the representations of space and time, of the processes of phonemic analysis, and synthesis and problems of astereognosis [456].
 
28
Speech development of children with CP is characterized by disorders on many components: lexical, grammatical, and phonetic or phonemic. Most frequently, they suffer from dysarthria or even anarthria.
 
29
Even if the onset of the cause-effect mechanism in the individual cannot be attributed only to the development of movement coordination [609].
 
30
Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) includes all the communication methods used to supplement or replace speech or writing for persons who experience difficulties in the area, due to impairments in the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC makes use of different codes for communication—pictures, symbols, graphic, auditory cues—and is based on the adoption of a variety of support devices, from low- to high-tech.
 
31
“Communicative Temptations” is a technique used within the framework of Applied Behaviour Analysis for “tempting” the child to communicate with the interlocutor; the idea is to make the effects of child’s communication desirable for him/her through reinforcement of his/her positive answer [555].
 
32
This paragraph is also inspired by Périno and Besio [533].
 
33
Information about these modifications is available in the related literature and on websites devoted to Assistive Technologies. See for example, www.​eastin.​eu;https://​www.​who.​int/​news-room/​feature-stories/​detail/​global-cooperation-on-assistive-technology-(gate).
 
34
For example, Soares et al. [12] reported less active exploration as mouthing of objects in preterm infants than full-term infants between 5 and 7 months.
 
35
The Child-Initiated Pretend Play Assessment (ChIPPA) test was used in this experiment [536].
 
36
The Knox Preschool Pretend Play Scale revised (KPPPSr) test was used in this second experiment [389].
 
37
See also Sect. 2.​9.
 
38
See Sect. 3.1.3.
 
39
The list of monogenic forms of ID has increased rapidly in recent years thanks to the implementation of genomic sequencing techniques [15]. Among the ID caused by chromosomal anomalies, the best-known and most widespread in the population are the Down, the Williams, and the Willi-Prader syndromes.
 
40
See note on Sect.3.2.2.
 
41
Many definitions of EBP exist and are reported by Sturmey [669]:4; the author adopts the one by Sackett et al. [595]: “the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values”, used also by the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Presidential Task Force on EBP (2006). Evidence-based approaches are characterized by systematic reviews and meta-analyses.
 
42
In the first—written in Persian—it is not clear which kind of play activities the authors did include in their research, being the works cited in the references very eclectic; in the second, some methodological aspects have not been discussed exhaustively.
 
43
Whose components are: a holistic view of the explanation of ID, the locus of the disability, the significant risk factors leading to ID, interventions and supports for prevention or mitigation of ID, and the elements of a multidimensional approach to subgroup classification [34, 476]. They can be applied to various areas of intervention by adopting practices consistent with them.
 
44
With special reference to children with Down syndrome, this impairment can be described as follows: visual-spatial working memory (images, objects, their location) is quite preserved; verbal working memory (that holds speech-based and acoustic information) is significantly weak; long-term memory seems to be preserved too, but its quality strictly depends on the quality of the material that has been stored [235]. Recently Zimpel  [772] suggested that heightened memory records of persons with Down syndrome may be due to strong emotional responses caused by increased activity of the brain’s limbic system (ibidem).
 
45
“Rehearsal” is the literal repetition of the exact words that a person wants to remember. It can be oral, visual, or written. It influences the attention and storing of information in memory. Various rehearsal strategies are known, i.e., simple repetition, cumulative repetition, copying/note-taking, and text markup.
 
46
This “tip” is associated to a specific methodology suggested by the author to identify the more appropriate assessment tools in the framework of this proposal [30].
 
47
See also Sect. 2.​2.​4.
 
48
See also the note on Sect. 2.​9.​3.
 
49
This paragraph is also inspired both by the works of Bulgarelli and Stancheva-Popkostadinova [133] and by Périno and Besio [533].
 
50
Intended in this study as practice play. See an interesting discussion on the terminology concerning the expression “functional play” in Sidhu et al. [628].
 
51
These “may manifest as preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest, as inflexible adherence to specific, non-functional routines or rituals, or as stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting or complex whole-body movements) as well as the persistent preoccupation with parts of objects” [513]:566.
 
53
The expression was already coined by Kanner.
 
54
Joint attention behaviours emerge in typically developing children between 6 and 12 months and concern the triadic sharing of attention between the infant, another person, and an object or event; such behaviours include gaze sharing, showing and pointing objects. Imperative triadic exchanges serve an instrumental or requesting function, whereas declarative triadic exchanges serve to share awareness, or the experience, of an object or event [166]. Individuals with autism are impaired in the development of both imperative and declarative acts, although impairments in the latter are more severe [41].
 
55
“Located in the opercular part of the inferior frontal gyrus and in the rostral part of the inferior parietal lobule of the brain” [770]:242, they are activated when an action is performed, or when one observes another that completes it [577].
 
56
This section is also inspired by Ray-Kaeser et al. [564].
 
57
In a wider perspective, few studies exist that compare different assessment tools used in autism evaluation [508].
 
58
They are: Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS-II [312]); Autism Diagnostic Observation Scale (ADOS [431]); Child Autism Rating Scale (CARS2-ST [610]; Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales-Developmental Profile Infant-Toddler Checklist (CSBS DP ITC; [741].
 
59
Additional assessment tools with respect to those already cited in this paragraph, are available for evaluation of ASD development, and some of them have a substantial part devoted to play behaviours. Among them, it is worth citing the Screening Tool for Autism in Two-Year-Olds (STAT) [664, 665].
 
60
Other tools to be considered because used in the field of ASD are: Questionnaire for Play Observation [75]; Revised Preschool Play Scale [388]; Protocols for Play Behaviour [634]; Scale of Organisation of Play Behaviour [347]. See also Ziviani [773].
 
61
This paragraph is also inspired by Ray-Kaeser et al. [564].
 
62
See also Sect. 2.​10.​2.
 
63
Intensive Interaction [331, 332] is an approach to teaching to persons with learning difficulties which is aimed specifically at facilitating the development of the most fundamental social and communication abilities. It is based on the model of caregiver-infant interaction and makes use of caregivers’ playful style in the interactive process. According to Nind [496] there are some reasons for applying this approach also to persons with ASD.
 
64
Video-modelling is a technique to teach new skills or behaviour to autistic children. The video shows someone doing an activity or a behaviour. The child watching the video copies them.
 
65
This reflection introduces also the—neither trivial or predictable—discussion on the fact that according to some authors the ‘normative benchmarks’ [690] are likely to be challenged in the case of play and autism, for instance by considering that having fun should not be sacrificed in the name of age appropriateness [349].
 
66
The first part of this paragraph is partially inspired by Zanobini and Usai [770].
 
67
The report has been developed, together other documentation, within the “Vision 2020’ program, which sets the aim to eliminate avoidable blindness by 2020. While there have been some positive changes in the reduction in the prevalence of blindness and MSVI, the main avoidable causes of vision loss, cataracts and refractive error are still the main causes of vision loss [380]:15.
 
69
“The under-five mortality rate refers to the probability of a child dying between birth and exactly 5 years of age, expressed per 1.000 live births” (https://​data.​unicef.​org/​topic/​child-survival/​under-five-mortality/​).
 
71
The development of children with CVI may be deeply complicated by the severity and the type of the impairment. Although it is a quite recent topic in scientific literature, many studies have been devoted to its study, for example, the ones by Dutton and colleagues [218, 219, 771].
 
72
They were of two types: first, those that compensate for the absence of sight by substituting visual inputs with sound and touch; and, second, where an additional strategy is proposed to circumvent a visual need [732]:351.
 
73
Numerous researches have been done in this field. Fielder and Proulx [242] refer in particular the following ones: Brown and Proulx [117, 118], Haigh et al. [302], Proulx et al. [557], Proulx et al. [558], Bach-y-Rita et al. [575], Chebat et al. [168], Chebat et al. [169]).
 
74
They are “implantable devices that use electrical currents to stimulate the residual healthy components of a damaged visual pathway. The technology is analogous to cochlear implants [...]. However, as the eye is anatomically more complex than the ear, the technological challenges are significant in the quest to develop a high-resolution vision prosthesis. [...] Most electronic vision prostheses are based on a video camera that captures the visual scene, which is then converted to electrical signals via an external processing unit. The electrical signals are then transmitted to the implanted electrodes, which stimulate the residual visual pathway to provide artificial vision” [27]:390–391).
 
75
They include “seeing with sounds”, a prosthetic system in which “images from a glasses-mounted camera are converted into a “soundscape”, with a consistent mapping between visual location and auditory information” [732]:404.
 
76
They include glasses which provide visual augmentation to persons with some remaining sight, by converting the visual scene into a high-contrast representation [732].
 
77
This paragraph is also inspired by Ray-Kaeser et al. [564].
 
78
In the absence of the incentive represented by sight, and since there are no vicariant modalities for recognizing reality, “the child with visual impairment cannot venture towards an empty, mysterious, unknown reality, full of obstacles and dangers” [236]: 124).
 
79
Fraiberg identified it at an early age; nevertheless, she indicated that only starting from this developmental phase does the child also manifest walking behaviour. “As long as the child has not developed an objective, stable and permanent external space, he/she cannot move from only voluntarily because he/she has nowhere to go” (cited in [460]).
 
80
Among the other sources, this paragraph is also inspired by Tzvetkova-Arsova and Zappaterra [712] and by Périno and Besio [533].
 
81
For educational purposes, the Lego Foundation has launched the Lego Braille Bricks project worldwide in 2020 to teach Braille to blind children in a playful way, accompanied by examples of didactic activities that can be carried out with them (in addition to playing as usual): an interesting play-like idea. https://​www.​legobraillebrick​s.​com/​.
 
82
“Secure attachment” is the positive parent-child relationship, in which the child displays confidence when the parent is present, shows mild distress when the parent leaves, and quickly re-establishes contact when the parent returns. The construct has been developed by Bowlby and Ainsworth in the seventies.
 
83
According to the study of van der Boek et al. [330], Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting (VIPP) [368] exploration proved successful in this respect versus attachment behaviour.
 
84
The author, generous with practical examples, cites, for instance, the appropriate creation of permanent play groups, so that children can get acquainted in playing together. These group may grow over time, while the one of the blind children might grow more slowly [183].
 
85
This organization of the author’s discourse, coming from different literature references and developed in different professional experiences, echoes the LUDI list of the adult’s roles in play. See also Sect. 2.​9.​3.This consonance at a distance appears reassuring on a scientific level and seems to indicate that this new interpretative line of research on play is consolidating, finding feedback and new confirmations.
 
88
A detailed analysis of HI causes is presented in Brown et al. [116].
 
89
Pressure groups and associations of deaf persons are determined to defend their language, which is strongly connected to their whole history of claiming a specific, unique culture, world, identity, for which they demand respect and social and political recognition.
 
90
These methods proposed sophisticated and clever modalities for putting together sign and spoken languages to reach exhaustiveness and precision in discourse and conversation, attempts to optimize the combination of sign and speech [559]. The bimodal method, in particular, was also created as a more effective method to learn spoken language and includes special solutions for supporting academic learning.
 
91
The term, mediated from the sociologist Margaret Mead, was first intended as “the full spectrum of language modes, child-devised gestures, the language of signs, speech, speech reading, finger spelling, reading and writing” (Denton, 1976, cit. in [32]:77).
 
92
According to Bergeron et al., “contemporary speech and language interventions are not limited to disabilities but embrace the pragmatics of communication behaviours from the perspective of functional social participation. Accordingly, current speech and language therapies for deaf and hard-of-hearing children include a broad spectrum of approaches and techniques [and include notions and competence about] using hearing devices, evidence of their efficacy and how they are implemented in diverse clinical practices” [60]:378. An interesting systematic review about the use of sign and spoken language today by children with HI users of auditory aids is contained in Fitzpatrick et al. [245].
 
93
See also note at Sect. 3.2.2.
 
94
This paragraph is also inspired by Andreeva et al. [17], and Périno and Besio [533].
 
95
This is confirmed by a study of Gregory and Mogford [293], who, while demonstrating the ability to use the objects symbolically in six deaf children aged 1–3, found also that they did not enact imaginary play, nor sequences of similar length and complexity of their peers, without HI. The study is reported in Slade et al. [640].
 
Metadaten
Titel
Play and Disabilities
verfasst von
Serenella Besio
Copyright-Jahr
2022
Buch
Robot Play for All

Print ISBN: 978-3-031-05041-1

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-031-05042-8

Copyright-Jahr: 2022

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05042-8_3