Post-Independence Development in Africa

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Introduction: Theorizing Development in Post-independence Africa

   David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu

   Abstract

   This chapter introduces the book Post-Independence Development in Africa: Decolonisation and Transformation Prospects. It achieves this by offering theoretical comments about post-independence development in Africa and by providing historical details about the development approaches adopted in Africa immediately after independence in the 1960s and mid-1970s. As the chapter shows, the book sits at the intersection of two sets of scholarly literature, namely, literature on development and literature on development discourses and practices in Africa. This book contributes to clarifying how the two strands of literature intersect using several case studies across Africa.

3. Development Historicization and Theorizations

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 2. Unearthing the Nexus Between Development Theories and Underdevelopment in the Post-independence Africa

      Aaram Gwiza, Moira Tambaoga, Vain D. B. Jarbandhan

      Abstract

      Africa is endowed with plentiful social and economic resources. Ironically, the continent is still deeply entrenched in extreme poverty that, regrettably, defines the lives of many people. Drought and famine, pandemics, high rates of unemployment and crime, and natural disasters point to a discouraging bleak future. This study interrogates the development theories and development nexus with a particular reference to Africa’s post-independence era. The prime objective of the study is to discuss the reasons why development theories are failing to project and bring real development in post-independence Africa. The chapter utilizes documentary search as the data collection instrument. The data is analyzed qualitatively using the content analysis method. The study argues that the deep-rooted poverty cases are linked to the failures of the contemporary theories of development in shaping the pace and direction of development efforts in the African continent. To this end, the research seeks to synthesize the key components and role of the three major theories of development, namely, dependency, modernization, and globalization, in understanding Africa’s post-independence development. Observed loopholes of the above development theories are, indeed, a compelling case for this chapter to suggest the Africa Renaissance theory as a panacea for a holistic appreciation of the depth and breadth of various development strides in post-independence Africa.

   3. Chapter 3. Post-Independence Sustainable Development in Africa and Policy Proposals to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals

      David Mhlanga, Farai Mlambo

      Abstract

      The most powerful instrument available for achieving sustainable development is economic expansion. The reduction of poverty and the enhancement of living standards are both attainable goals for nations in the process of economic development. Research that encompasses multiple countries, and case studies conducted inside individual countries demonstrate that quick and sustained economic growth is necessary if we are to make faster headway toward achieving our objectives, particularly sustainable development goals. The chapter concentrated on the post-independence sustainable development measures in Africa using facts and data. The chapter also commented on the ideas that the African states might follow to accomplish Sustainable Development Goals. The systematic literature review was used for this chapter’s focus. The chapter was successful in providing a range of development indicators for Africa, and it wrapped up with an in-depth examination of the numerous policy options that could help Africa achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

   4. Chapter 4. Decolonization of Development in Early Post-independence Africa

      Emmanuel Ndhlovu, David Mhlanga

      Abstract

      This chapter examines Africa’s socioeconomic development with a focus on the first two decades of political independence, i.e., 1960–1980. The chapter is a broad assessment of the colonially disrupted socioeconomic social reality in Africa to highlight the development status of the continent. Utilizing secondary empirical and qualitative evidence obtainable in both academic and gray literature, the chapter shows that given the slow rate with which the Human Development Index often grows, the performance of early post-independence African countries (combined) was not as dismal as is often claimed. Africa’s economic growth performed well above the global average just like Asia and the Americas during the 1970–1980 period despite the oil price shock as well as the structural adjustment programs of the 1970s. While Africa produced mixed development results, the chapter avers that the success of post-independence Africa can be attributed to the impressive groundwork of first-generation African leaders who experimented with different kinds of developmental systems, both home-grown and adapted.

   5. Chapter 5. Navigating a Tight Rope Between African Philosophy and Economics: Will the African Union Sustain the Spirit of Ujamaa in the Advent of COVID-19?

      Michael Takudzwa Pasara

      Abstract

      Ujamaa is a highly popularised African spirit and philosophy of socialism and family or brotherhood. This chapter takes a critical analysis of the Ujamaa philosophy, its past successes and weaknesses, and how it has fared in different times especially in the wake of two very contrasting developments in March 2018 and December 2019, respectively. Firstly, the signing of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA) seeks to revive and promote the spirit of Ujamaa through economic gains from intra-African trade. Secondly, the challenges associated with COVID-19 which were largely promoting isolation resulted in the closing of borders leading to countries operating as silos against a common enemy of such magnitude as the pandemic. The chapter also analyses how the European Union has, in practice, applied the spirit of Ujamaa in the context of the Russia-Ukraine conflict and the position of the approach in Africa despite the rhetoric on the subject. The chapter concludes that the original models upon which Ujamaa was anchored were largely meant to attain political freedoms in the 1960s to 1980s. These priorities changed when countries became independent leading to less stimulus for continued commitments to regional bodies such as the African Union. The chapter recommends that commitment to the African Ujamaa can be sustained in the long run when arrangements such as the AfCFTA are operational and when member countries derive pragmatic gains with priorities moving from political to economic freedoms.

4. Development Politics and Practice in Africa

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 6. Impact of Regional Trade Agreements on Economic Growth: An Econometric Analysis

      Michael Takudzwa Pasara, Steven Henry Dunga

      Abstract

      While general trade theory points towards the stylised hypothesis of a positive correlation between trade openness and economic growth, theorists such as Jacob Viner questioned this hypothesis due to the presence of trade creation and diversion effects. Africa has been historically engaged in various regional trade agreements (RTAs) whose economic gains are sometimes skewed leading to polarisation of gains (or losses) and uneven development. Will the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA) lead to any significant welfare gains? Using the augmented gravity model, this chapter seeks to answer this and related questions by focusing on three regional economic communities (RECs), namely, the East African Community (EAC), Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA), and Southern African Development Community (SADC). The gravity model was preferred not only for its ability to identify significant factors which influence bilateral trade but also for its ability to reflect the level of trade creation and diversion and key components in welfare distribution. The results indicate that economic size (positive) and distance (negative) are significant in influencing bilateral trade, but population size was not showing that it is income which carries more weight in trade volume. Country idiosyncratic factors of the shared border and landlocked or coastal were also significant, but the presence of a common language was not. The chapter recommends not only the removal of trade barriers but also the introduction of one-stop border posts, the adoption of a common language, and the development of soft and hard infrastructure and other non-trade barriers (NTBs).

   3. Chapter 7. Livelihood Activities in Post-Independent Africa: A Closer Look at the Impact of Chikorokoza Illegal Mining on the Education System in Zimbabwe

      Respect Jongwe, David Mhlanga

      Abstract

      After the country gained its freedom, one of the most prominent methods of making a living in Zimbabwe was a practice known as chikorokoza, which is an indigenous term for gold panning. The purpose of the study was to evaluate how chikorokoza has an impact on the educational system in the mining town of Kwekwe. In the current body of research, a pragmatic approach that triangulated data gathering and analysis was chosen as the method of choice. The purpose of this was to determine the actual experiences that stakeholders have had concerning how artisanal miners make their living. Personal interviews were carried out in person and included the use of both structured and semi-structured questionnaires. These types of questions were posed to respondents. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences was utilized to carry out the statistical analysis. Content analysis was utilized to conduct the study of qualitative data. The findings of the study pointed to rampant violence among artisanal miners, who are also known as maShurugwi, as well as an increase in school dropouts, teenage pregnancies, teachers boycotting lessons in pursuit of gold-panning activities, and the proliferation of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). The findings of this study indicate that chikorokoza has had a detrimental effect on the educational progress made in the Kwekwe district. According to the findings of the study, the Zimbabwean government should take severe action to put a stop to chikorokoza in the country.

   4. Chapter 8. Institutional Capacity Challenges for Policy Research Analysis (PRA) in Zimbabwe: A Comparative Study of State and Non-state Policy Institutions

      Moira Tambaoga, Aaram Gwiza, Vain D. B. Jarbandhan, Promise Machingo Hlungwani

      Abstract

      Institutional capacity forms the core of sound policy research and analysis (PRA). Studies of institutional capacity focusing on PRA are increasingly gaining momentum in the contemporary world. Specifically, researchers focus on how governments can design and adopt policy decisions to fundamentally address societal needs and realise sustainable development. This chapter investigates the institutional capacity for PRA in Zimbabwe’s Land Reform Policy, with a specific focus on state and non-state policy institutions. The thesis of the chapter is that institutional incapacity undermines effective policy research and analysis. A qualitative research methodology was applied to gain more insight into the research topic. Land and agrarian institutions, the Ruzivo Trust, Women and Land Zimbabwe, the Ministry of Lands and Rural Resettlement, the 2003 Presidential Land Review Commission (PLRC), and relevant academics and experts on land governance were consulted for case evidence. In this study, data collection tools included in-depth interviews and documentary searches. The researchers used content and thematic analysis approaches for data presentation and analysis. Research findings highlight that the institutional capacity for PRA in Zimbabwe is relatively weak and fragmented. The main challenges noted include overstressed human resources due to understaffing and limited financial resources exacerbated by leakages through corruption. The study, therefore, recommends that the Land Commission appoints qualified and non-partisan staff. Furthermore, policy researchers and analysts should be given access to critical policy documents.

5. Development as a Painful Process

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 9. Development-Induced Displacement: A Call for Ethical Considerations in Africa

      Robson Mandishekwa

      Abstract

      Development projects often lead to displacement. This chapter builds on the trolley problem as an ethical decision-making tool for displacement. It argues that despite the trolley problem having been identified about six decades ago, its application in decisions about development projects that lead to displacement is rare, especially in Africa. That is the ethical considerations, especially using the trolley problem, about displacing people have been under-researched. The study, therefore, puts forward the argument that despite the benefits derived from development projects, ethical considerations still need to be emphasised. This research, therefore, used the trolley problem as one sacrificial dilemma model for ethical decision-making. The findings indicate that utilitarian approaches suggest that displacing the minority is acceptable based on the fact that the majority are going to benefit. Deontologically, this displacement is not morally justifiable because the government has a moral obligation to protect every citizen against arbitrary displacement. If approached for assistance, courts may not need to intervene because, from the trolley problem view, they will be perceived as allowing the killing of innocent civilians, if they rule in favour of the government or development partners. Again, the government must improve the welfare of the citizens, who include both the displaced and the non-displaced, but by instituting the project, the displaced may be worse off than before. Faced with this dilemma, the government normally uses its power of eminent domain to attain supposedly utilitarian results.

   3. Chapter 10. Health and Healthcare Delivery in Zimbabwe: Past and Present

      Tamisai Chipunza, Senia Nhamo

      Abstract

      Zimbabwe did not achieve the health-related 2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and unless bold measures to improve the situation are taken, the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) health targets could be missed too. Understanding the healthcare challenges in Zimbabwe is key in proposing suggestions for positioning the country’s healthcare delivery system along the path of the 2030 SDGs. This chapter aimed to explore the key issues impacting Zimbabwe’s path toward ensuring healthy living and well-being (SDG3). It sheds light on the state of health and healthcare delivery in Zimbabwe since independence. This was achieved through a review and synthesis of literature and statistics on selected health-related indicators drawn from the United Nations (UN) tier classification of SDGs. The review showed that inadequate healthcare financing, more spending on salaries than on service delivery, the bias of public healthcare spending toward urban-based higher-level health facilities, and lack of community participation in health matters are among the challenges impacting efficient healthcare delivery in Zimbabwe. To improve health and healthcare delivery in the country, there is a need to enhance community participation in health issues, adequately equip lower-level health facilities, adopt strategies to retain health personnel, and raise additional resources for healthcare delivery.

   4. Chapter 11. Contested Landscapes: Politics of Space and Belonging in Land-Use Planning in Bvumba Forest Along the Zimbabwe-Mozambican Border

      Joseline W. Chitotombe, David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu

      Abstract

      The Bvumba Forest in Manicaland has become a very contentious environment as a direct result of the reconfiguration of the landscape, which has led to a redefinition of the political areas. The purpose of this study is to identify the reemerging landscapes in the Bvumba Forest, analyze the contestations surrounding the landscape changes, and evaluate the solutions that have been pleaded for to deal with the overarching difficulties. This research was conducted using a qualitative research methodology called content analysis, and it took an interpretive approach to data presentation. The findings showed that the Bvumba Forest had been made into a political space through the use of speech, which is what made it a site of conflict. This has consequently resulted in a redefining of the emerging social relations, which has now resulted in the local inhabitants becoming estranged from their customary forest rights. According to the study, policymakers should engage stakeholders to initiate inclusive governance in the Bvumba Forest.

   5. Chapter 12. Post-independence Reforms and Policies in Zimbabwe

      Clainos Chidoko

      Abstract

      Since independence in 1980, Zimbabwe has implemented more than ten economic development strategies. These policies ranged from the inward-looking, interventionist strategy to the outward-oriented market-driven focus. All these policies endeavored to create employment in the country among many other objectives and to jostle the economy into an industrial activity. Most of the objectives including the employment objective have not been achieved fully with unemployment going up instead. The interventionist strategies targeted mainly the agricultural, mining, financial, and manufacturing sectors and to some extent construction and tourism. Zimbabwe inherited a fairly performing economy at independence, and as such, the main task of the government was to maintain and improve the economy’s performance. A lot of resources were to be committed so as to continue on the right track. On that note, Zimbabwe received a lot of support from the international community in terms of funding, training, and human personnel. However, despite the final support from the international community, the economy did not improve to the expectation of the Zimbabweans. It is recommended that the government should implement the policies wholeheartedly.

   6. Chapter 13. Tourism Receipts, Education, and Income Inequality in Selected South African Provinces

      Rufaro Garidzirai

      Abstract

      South Africa is one of the most unequal countries worldwide. This is illustrated by a high inequality since 1994. The government has endeavored to develop programs to assuage this challenge such as developing a social grant system and internship programs. However, regardless of these developments, the inequality challenge persists. Deplorably, the provinces are the source of South Africa’s inequality. Despite the income inequality challenge, tourism receipts and education are envisioned to solve this challenge. Thus, this study investigates the influence of education and tourism on income inequality in South African provinces. In achieving this, a pooled mean group (PMG) was employed. The results show that tourism arrival and economic growth negatively influence income inequality in the South African provinces, while tourism arrival was insignificant in explaining income inequality. Contrarily, tourism receipts and education positively influence income inequality in South African provinces. Thus, an improvement in the tourism sector is crucial since it is one of the fastest-growing sectors in South Africa. It is envisaged to create employment and reduce poverty and income inequality.

   7. Chapter 14. Dam Projects, Modernity, and Forced Displacement: An Analysis of the Role of Local Institutions in Surviving Marginalization Among the Tokwe Mukosi Displacees in Zimbabwe

      Lloyd Nhodo, Vivian Besem Ojong

      Abstract

      This chapter is a product of the broader qualitative and ethnographic study carried out among the Tokwe Mukosi internally displaced persons (IDPs) at Chingwizi. This followed the construction of the largest inland dam project in Zimbabwe. It acknowledges that owing to the social, political, and economic impediments afflicting Zimbabwe, the state has reneged on the international imperatives for the protection of IDPs. These include but are not limited to the United Nations Guidelines on IDPs and the Kampala Convention on the Protection of IDPs. The disregard for these obligations is also an outcome of the spirited desire for modernity, rationality, and quantitative development. This has unintentionally led to the unintended consequence of “development eluding people". This chapter shows how the Tokwe Mukosi people are falling back on the existing local institutions for protection, simultaneously portraying how they create new local institutions to build resilience with very limited state support. The findings reveal the interplay between local institutions and social capital in understanding the efficacy of informal and community-based institutions in dealing with vulnerability and marginalization. This chapter interfaces social capital theory and strategic essentialism to understand the collective response of the displacements in the quest to survive marginalization. Methodologically, unstructured interviews, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and secondary sources of data were used to collect data within this ethnographic study.

6. The Future of Development in Africa

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 15. Public Spending and Private Sector Investment in Nigeria: An Investigation of the Crowding-in (or Crowding-out) Effect Amidst Deteriorating Fiscal Balance

      Nargiza Alymkulova, Paul Terhemba Iorember, Oreoluwatoni Omotesho

      Abstract

      The renewed interest in the role of the private sector as a powerhouse for enhancing economic development provides the impetus for this study. Specifically, this study investigates the effects of public spending on private sector investment amidst rising fiscal deficit, with the view of establishing the crowding effects of such spending. Employing the autoregressive distributed lag model on quarterly data from 2011Q1 to 2020Q2, this study found that despite the rising level of fiscal deficit in Nigeria, public spending (recurrent and capital expenditure) and public borrowing are the strong determinants of private sector investment. The results show that public expenditure has a significant effect on private investment in Nigeria. However, the recurrent expenditure which constitutes the largest percentage of the total public spending moves in the opposite direction and has a negative significant effect on private investment. This suggests that fewer resources are made available for capital expenditure. The study, therefore, recommends the need for the government to reduce recurrent expenditure and increase spending on capital items. This involves the concentration of efforts on the provision and expansion of the existing infrastructure.

   3. Chapter 16. The Impact of Millennium and Sustainable Development Goals on Women Leaders Within South African Schools

      Musa Grace Zitha

      Abstract

      The adaptation of the MDGs, later superseded by the SDGs, is an ongoing process for many countries. Just 7 years before 2030, the target year for the SDGs, this study provides a report on how South African women leaders in schools were impacted by the MDGs and SDGs. It uses the qualitative review of secondary literature wherein document analysis is deployed. The study shows that the government of South Africa and the DBE embraced the MDGs and SDGs to make its NDP a success by promoting women to leadership positions. This chapter reveals that although the MDGs and SGDs had a positive impact on women leaders of South African schools, there are still many challenges that hinder achievements of SDG goals by 2030. The study recommends empowerment of individuals responsible for empowering women and implementation of systems and projects that can help improve the situation of women leaders in schools.

   4. Chapter 17. Implications of Sino-African Partnerships for Peasant Natural Resource Access, Ownership, and Utilization in Africa

      Emmanuel Ndhlovu, David Mhlanga

      Abstract

      The literature on China-Africa economic partnerships has blind spots in relation to implications of such partnerships for peasant livelihoods and accumulation. While the literature on China’s worth as Africa’s largest trading partner and foreign direct investment source abounds, such literature is lacking when it comes to exploring the implications of such partnerships on the natural resource (land, water bodies, forests) access, utilization, and ownership by the peasantry which relies on these resources both for accumulation and livelihoods. Using two case studies, namely, Uganda and Zimbabwe, and drawing on the theory of partnerships, this chapter closes this gap by (i) exploring the implications of Chinese investments on Africa peasant access to and utilization and ownership of natural resources and (ii) proposing solutions to asymmetrical power relations in economic partnerships. This chapter undertakes a critical document analysis of secondary literature obtained in both scholarly and gray literature which were selected using key terms such as Africa, China-Africa relations/partnerships, natural resources, and land.

   5. Chapter 18. A South African Perspective on the Solidification of Auditor’s Competence in the Areas of Testing for the Presence of Fraud and Corruption

      Kgabo Freddy Masehela, David Mhlanga

      Abstract

      Around the world, the accounting profession and corporations are beset by scandals and criticism. Auditors’ opinions on financial accounts are erroneous, which causes this. Wealthy influential individuals, as well as political involvement in the profession, may have an effect. Auditing firms and their auditors have been implicated in fraudulent transactions, negligence, and dishonest practices. There has always been an alarming amount of corporate governance scandals in South Africa and globally. Developed countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom have suffered the same fate as South Africa in the aftermath of these scandals. The problem is that fraud and corruption exist in the accounting profession and accounting firms. The goal of this study is to figure out what causes fraud and corruption in the auditing industry in South Africa and around the world. Data was collected from the available secondary literature, and document analysis was used to analyze the data. According to the findings, audit firms in South Africa and other countries should place a greater emphasis on promoting integrity and ethical values and invest more in anti-fraud controls such as whistle-blower lines, which encourage auditors to report fraud and misconduct without fear of retaliation from their employers. This can help in the reduction of corrupt activities which will have a positive impact on the economic growth and development of the South African economy.

   6. Chapter 19. Post-COVID-19 in South Africa: The Pandemic and Public Finances toward Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals

      David Mhlanga

      Abstract

      Companies both public and private, as well as national and international budgets, were adversely affected by the global economic downturn that followed the COVID-19 pandemic. In light of this, the purpose of this study is to look at how the COVID-19 crisis affected South Africa’s public spending plan. There was a comprehensive examination of the country’s tax income, job market, output, government spending, and overall debt. According to the content analysis results of this study, the COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on South Africa’s national finances. For instance, the research found that South Africa’s tax revenue collections were severely impacted, to the point where a revenue shortfall of almost R213.2 billion rand was forecast in the 2021 budget policy statement. Accordingly, this study suggests that the government should promote growth and investment, placing an emphasis on the quality of governance by boosting openness, adopting effective compliance procedures and technology, and opening the economy to citizen engagement. Strategies that can be implemented to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were also discussed in this chapter.

   7. Chapter 20. The Politicization of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Zimbabwe and Implications on the Attainment of the SDGs

      Emmanuel Ndhlovu, David Mhlanga

      Abstract

      This chapter explores the politicization of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic and the associated response mechanisms in Zimbabwe. Underpinned by Foucault’s theory of biopower, and utilizing in-depth interviews as well as secondary literature sources obtained in academic and gray literature, this article posits that the adopted COVID-19 response mechanisms proved to be not basically about serving lives and livelihoods, but political weapons used to suppress political gatherings frustrate citizen protests and execute surveillance on opposition political parties. The ruling party’s approach to the COVID-19 pandemic is, therefore, a clear indication of how biological and health issues can easily be changed into political issues which can have huge negative implications for the attainment of sustainable development goals.

7. Conclusions and Recommendations

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 21. Conclusion: Toward Development in Postindependence Africa

      David Mhlanga, Emmanuel Ndhlovu

      Abstract

      This chapter provides an overview of the entire book Post-Independence Development in Africa: Decolonisation and Transformation Prospects. The purpose of this book was to provide a comprehensive and chronological account of the debates and facts surrounding postindependence development discourses and practices in Africa and to present this account in a comprehensive order. Drawing from the debates in the chapters, this current chapter flags some of the potential routes that can lead to development realization in Africa. The chapter concludes that among the numerous efforts and approaches, political will by sitting political leaders should serve as the starting point. Future research could explore how the private sector could be engaged to play a complementary key role in supporting governments in launching development projects.

8. Backmatter