Progress in Digital and Physical Manufacturing

At its core, this paper forms a discussion around the popular uptake of technologies such as AM, and why technologies such as these are not pursued with equal interest in industry as they have been in popular culture. More specifically, it asks – Why is AM still hard to sell into the manufacturing industry? As an ongoing work this paper is an attempt to construct a vision and roadmap to how AM could be implemented in any businesses dealing with physical, manufactured products. Using design tools and techniques from systemic design, service design and industrial design, this paper argues for a broader and more holistic approach to AM. We see this qualitative emphasis on design through the lenses of client/designer/producer relations that are becoming increasingly complex, in their approach to business models and relations with costumers.

Additive manufacturing became one of the most important manufacturing technologies in the last three decades. The freeform building capacity plays a relevant role on industrial applications where conventional manufacturing approaches are not technically or even not economically feasible. The development of advanced materials for AM is an ongoing process, providing a new competitive edge to AM technologies. Nowadays, AM plays an important role on the production of complex geometries for products of several domains, such as aerospace, automotive, medical among others, supported by high performance materials and increased efficiency AM processes. Distributed manufacturing supply chain also became a reality, enabling new business models and bridging the gap between product designers and end-users. Additionally, high levels of manufacturing automation, incorporating AM equipment as well as smart factories are emerging. At the middle of the 2020s decade, standardisation for materials, material testing and manufacturing processes started its appearance to establish ground-breaking standards to harmonize the use of additive manufacturing technologies worldwide. Now, on the edge of a new decade, a bright future for AM technologies can be foreseen. This paper presents the AM prospects for the next decade and its prospective impact on business and industrial production models.

Additive technologies are by definition technologies capable of producing products in a layer-by-layer fashion. Due to the specific characteristics of these technologies, the products can be produced in multi-materials and without any geometric limitations. By associating the use of biocompatible materials, it has become an excellent technology to develop products and/ or devices for the medical field. Additive manufacturing technologies within the medical field have created a specific technological field, namely biomanufacturing which is capable of producing medical devices with the combination of biomaterials, drugs and growth factors and the use of cells for the production of biomedical implants. Additive manufacturing and biomanufacturing technologies have thus shown to be capable of meeting the requirements demanded by the medical sector. However, the significance of these technologies can’t be based only on the current context, but also need to be assessed in the future context.Given the growth and diversity that these technologies have achieved, this study aims to examine the future impact of additive manufacturing technologies in the medical field for the year 2030. To meet this goal, we used the Delphi method which is a technique that involves the application of questionnaires to experts in the field, until reaching the relative consensus of the predictions of these technologies.

This paper investigates the technological and economic potential of 10 different AM materials manufactured with four different AM technologies for the use of tool production for injection molding in small series applications. Therefore, experimental trials with three different injection molding materials with increasing manufacturing difficulty in terms of resulting tool loads are conducted. Tool wear, resulting part quality and tool manufacturing cost are taken into account for potential evaluation. A concrete selection of the most suitable materials for further investigation is given.

Additive manufacturing technologies are being used more widely to manufacture complex part geometries. Given the existing space limitations and the substantial time required to build up parts (small layer thicknesses), most 3D printing technologies do not operate cost effectively. When they are combined with industrial robotics, however, they become particularly interesting for the manufacture of large parts. This paper reports on the development of the design of a novel high-production system that can build parts weighing as much as 50 kg and measuring more than 1000 mm. The innovative solution is based on the build platform’s six-axis controller to deposit large quantities of material (5–10 dm3/h) with layer thicknesses of 5–10 mm rapidly. The use of three extruders makes it possible to process different thermoplastics such as ABS, PC, PLA or PP in granule form. Both hard-soft materials and different colors can be combined. The VINCENT simulation tool developed by the Fraunhofer IFF is being used to develop the control system for complex manufacturing operations. This new integrative approach to motion planning and event simulation makes it possible to test geometry and function even before the system starts being built.

The Industry 4.0 (i4.0) paradigm was conceived bearing smart machines enabling capabilities, mostly through real-time communication both between smart equipment on a shop floor and decision-aiding software at the business level. This interoperability is achieved mostly through a reference architecture specifically designed for i4.0, which is aimed at devising the information architecture with real-time capabilities. From such architectures, the Reference Architectural Model for Industrie 4.0 (RAMI 4.0) is considered the preferred approach for implementation purposes, especially within Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). Nevertheless, the implementation of RAMI 4.0 is surrounded with great challenges when considering the current industrial landscape, which requires retrofitting of existing equipment and the various communication needs. Through three different case studies conducted within footwear and cork industries, this research proposes a RAMI 4.0 SME implementation methodology that considers the initial stages of equipment preparation to enable smart communications and capabilities. The result is a methodological route aimed for SMEs’ implementation of smart machines, based on RAMI 4.0, which considers both the technological aspects as well as the business requirements.

Industry 4.0 (i4.0) has changed the industrial processes. Increasingly, companies have to adapt their processes to follow the technology development which has caused a digital transformation. However, mainly the Small and Medium Enterprises have difficulty to evaluate its i4.0 readiness level and design a strategy that implements the i4.0 concepts. Towards this scenario, we present the SHIFTo4.0 – a self-assessment tool that evaluates the i4.0 readiness level of a company. SHIFTo4.0 is based on a model which contemplates six different dimensions: (i) strategy and organization; (ii) smart factory; (iii) smart operations; (iv) smart products; (v) data-driven services; and (vi) human resources. Each dimension is classified using a scale between 0 and 5. In addition, it provides a report with a set of recommendations, i.e., a roadmap, to guide the company in the i4.0 implementation to achieve a higher readiness level. As result, we present a case study that shows how a company can improve their current i4.0 readiness level by using SHIFTo4.0.

The potential of the Internet of Things (IoT) and other technologies in the realm of Industry 4.0 to generate valuable data for monitoring the performance of the production processes and the whole supply chain is well established. However, these large volumes of data can be used within planning and control systems (PCSs) to enhance real-time planning and decision-making. This paper conducts a literature review to envisage an overall system architecture that combines IoT and PCS for planning, monitoring and control of operations at the level of an industrial production process or at the level of its supply chain. Despite the extensive literature on IoT implementations, few studies explain the interactions between IoT and the components of PCS. It is expected that, with the increasing digitization of business processes, approaches with PCS and IoT become ubiquitous in the near future.

Professional CAD/CAM users in the mould making industry count on these environments to design and engineer moulds for the plastic industry. Conventionally this software is accessible through high-powered workstations shared among professionals in closed facilities. Operating in various countries, the access to data and projects, security and real-time collaboration became imperative. The look for solutions to provide mobility turned Tecnimoplás to virtualization to deliver VDI environments to their commercial, managers and project users.However, these kind of VDI environments weren’t extensively tested yet in the mould making industry, so the company decided to try this solution on their own.A proof-of-concept was made, and initial conclusions were taken from there leading the project forward. The final solution was tailored and implemented, and users started working only with VDI systems. Tests were then made to achieve the optimal VDI configuration and file time opening, processing times, update times and power consumption measurements took place.The continues VDI technology update makes this kind of study only a brief approach to this recent technology.

This study of automotive HMI (human-machine interface) design is built around the fact that traditional product modelling and testing tools (i.e. foam-clay mock-ups, working prototypes) are increasingly being replaced by simulation technologies. The development of these technologies creates challenges as well as opportunities for product design teams. This study was carried out as a workshop to understand these challenges. A shortlist of fourteen new in-vehicle interactive technologies was determined through a literature review, followed by recruitment of four experts to evaluate the simulation of these technologies. The evaluation was based on pre-set criteria regarding the suitability, availability of tools and extent of research and development required to simulate the interactive technologies, within a context of new product design and development.

In recent years, the shortage of experienced welder has become a problem. Therefore, we are developing online welder support system so that we can demonstrate the performance of experienced welder by providing in-formation to non-skilled welder during welding. This system can be applied to the actual work of welding as well as training only. In this system, the pre-diction and optimization for welding condition is provided to the welder as acoustic, visual and haptic information during actual work by analyzing the measurement results of welder’s behavior and welding condition with molten pool shape, etc. For data analysis, the prediction of penetration shape and optimization of torch movement can be also carried out using numerical simulation by mol-ten pool model. In this paper, in order to develop the on-line support system for welder, a basic investigation was carried out. As a result of the welder gaze measurement test using the smart glass with the proper filtering, it was confirmed that the eye tracking of the skilled welder was more stable than the non-skilled welder. Also, in the TIG manual welding, based on the measurement results of the torch movement by the camera for skilled welder and beginner, the situation of the backbead by numerical simulation was compared. The simulation results agree with the trend of actual welding. It was shown that the application of numerical simulation based molten pool model to simulation manual welding is effective.

The multi-pass welding process is an indispensable to build a large construction. An automated welding system by a welding robot is desired to realize a high-productive process. Normally, so many welding tests are carried out to determine the optimum welding condition. However, there are many disturbances in the manufacturing site, and the welding quality becomes worse even though the optimum condition is used. Therefore, to realize a high-productive automated welding system, a pass design system which can optimize and correct the welding condition depending on disturbances is required. In this study, a supporting system of pass design in multi-pass welding process is constructed by using numerical simulation of the weld pool. In this study, the system is applied to the multi-pass groove welding in horizontal position. Weld pool simulation is carried out to obtain the relationship between the welding condition and shape of the weld bead, and make a database of the system. This system can show the optimum welding condition depending on the gap size between the base metals. In addition, the system can correct the welding condition pass by pass depending on the shape of the previous pass. Finally, this system is applied to the experiment and the weld region shows good quality so the gap can be filled without defect. Therefore, the system developed in this study can support to optimize and correct the welding condition depending on the disturbance.

Although earthbag construction is recognizably a low environmental impact solution, existing software tools are limiting factors, since they do not have enough technical data to support its building information model. We propose a visual programming language code to generate earthbag domes inserted in a BIM environment, where these structures can be associated with other design and structural elements, producing the required technical data to inform construction including technical specifications as well as material and task quantification. This research adopted an experimental methodology exploring the advantages of the combination of Building Information modelling with parametric generative design in of the design of earthbag buildings or hybrid constructions involving earthbag walls of different geometries. It was validated resorting to a simulation process where it was possible to redesign and 3D print a scaled model of an existing earthbag building that merges different shapes in the same building, including the automated generation of the associated technical data. The developed tool allows designing different types of earthbag buildings providing a typical BIM model including both geometric model and technical specifications.

Climate change and rise in urban temperatures have further increased the cooling load demands for tall buildings located in hot climatic regions. Cooling loads in tall buildings can be reduced by integrating them with natural ventilation (NV) and building integrated vegetation (BIV) techniques. This study explores the potential of NV and BIV for obtaining low-energy buildings by analyzing ten tall buildings as case studies. Buildings are analyzed for NV, BIV, architecture design parameters, and energy savings. The results show that mixed-mode ventilation is the most commonly employed, and circular building plans have the highest potential for energy savings. Furthermore, the combination of NV with sky-gardens (BIV type) is the best strategy for achieving low-energy tall buildings in the tropical climate. The outcomes show that the application of well-researched building physics rules is in practice for making energy-efficient tall building. These findings may be helpful for designers and planners to develop further strategies and low-cost methods aiming at the development of more sustainable and healthier tall buildings.

The 3D printing technologies has changed the reality of manufacturing processes and today to prepare future engineers and designers, we need to think which are the best skills and scientific knowledge and also technical know-how capable to promoting and accelerating changes on companies to improve their competitiveness. How we can develop a consistent method to improve the skills for future engineers to deal with it. The methodology focus is in the development of an integrative project for a new product. The project aim to prepare students to develop an product from the initial idea to the final prototype and involve diverse competences like 3D modelling, physical models, CNC machining and 3D printing process.The results of the methodology and tasks established are adequate and possibility to improve the individual and group performance. The evaluation model implemented permit the valorization of the final work and that preserves the context of the workgroup and individual commitment.

The process of direct metal deposition gains recently high attention in the additive manufacturing community, but its capabilities to fabricate complex geometries is still limited. Especially for thin-walled structures, heat accumulation can disturb the process significantly. An adaption of process parameters, for instance by a semi-empirical model, is able to stabilize the process. Herein, an algorithm is proposed that creates a digital twin of the part from a given NC code, analyses the massiveness of the part by calculating a local geometric factor, and alters the laser power accordingly: The heat flux in a thin wall is limited compared to a massive plate due to its smaller cross section and requires therefore less laser power to generate a comparable melt pool, especially if waiting times shall be avoided. The algorithm correlates experimentally determined process parameters to the local geometric factor. Since no physical simulation is performed, it is fast, easy to use, and enables a clearly defined and repeatable process. The buildup of a demonstrator part reveals the potential of the parameter adaption to fabricate arbitrary geometries.

The Fused Filament Fabrication technique was used to build PLA scaffolds for bone tissue replacement. Scaffolds with 100% interconnectivity were fabricated using different printing parameters and geometry design. Two temperature values and two extrusion speeds were combined with two different layer thicknesses. The influence of these parameters upon produced scaffold morphology and compressive mechanical properties was assessed. Afterwards, two different geometries were fabricated considering only the best performing parameters, to assess the influence of the main and lateral pores dimension on scaffolds mechanical properties. Specimen morphology was analysed by scanning electron microscopy, to assess the geometrical quality of the produced parts. It was verified that the higher tested temperatures combined with the lower printing speeds increased the overall mechanical strength of produced scaffolds. Low temperatures and high printing speeds were found to limit the amount of material possible to be extruded due to viscosity issues, and introduced scaffold defects. Creating staggered scaffolds with offsets between layers, decreased the resulting scaffold mechanical performance.

Porous materials or porous media (PM) are found in many applications. The design of the porous structures for specific applications presents challenges that involve their geometric modeling and manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing (AM) has a great potential in this area since it allows porosity planning. In particular, the AM based on the material extrusion principle allows obtaining PM with a planned macro porosity without the need to model it geometrically. This is possible because this principle allows varying a number of manufacturing parameters in the production of lattice geometries. Although there are parameters that allow the creation of PM, the current process planning software still have limitations on the level of customization of the part filling. This work presents the potential of the process planning software called RP3 (Rapid Prototyping Process Planning) to obtain PM with the material extrusion AM technologies. For this, some specific filling strategies were developed such as the staggered raster and the joined filaments. The efficiency of the process planning system was evaluated by manufacturing PM in an open source printer.

This paper aims to provide an overview about 4D Printing (4DP), the use of Shape Memory Polymers (SMP) and how Computer-Aided Design (CAD) can be applied to programme shapes to perform controlled behaviors of 4DP parts when subject to environmental stimuli, leading to potential applications and outlining future challenges for this emerging field of multi-disciplinary science. One of the main barriers outlined in this work concerns the early stages of Design for 4DP (Df4DP), in which communicating the intent and the shape change behavior is important for designers, engineers and manufacturers.

The treatment of large bone defects often requires the use of an external fixator. However, these fixators present some limitations in terms of pain, morbidity and risk of infection. This paper presents a novel functional brace, being designed to be an alternative to current external fixation devices. Main design requirements are presented in this paper aiming at improving performance and comfort, and reducing costs and weight. The functional brace was tested under impact using finite element analysis (FEA).

Additive Manufacturing (AM) has proven its value both on the supply-chain and process tooling. Concerning the mouldmaking industry, many studies have been conducted, providing useful information about this manufacturing approach on the mould insert’s effectiveness on the mould’s cooling stage. Therefore, it is important to assess the feasibility of the use of AM in other mould components where temperature also plays an important role on cycle time. Furthermore, the freeform capacity of the manufacturing process also enables innovative and/or optimized solutions for mould components, providing a significant economic impact, resulting both from mould operation (reduced cycle time) and component’s production (conventional manufacturing vs. AM). This work aims also to evaluate the concept of mass customization by developing a common geometry for a hot-runner nozzle bushing, enabling its automatic customization depending on the hot-runner nozzle manufacturer and the cooling requirements of the nozzle. Additionally, generative design is also used to optimize the bushing’s volume, reducing build time and costs, providing a more effective cooling of the hot-runners nozzle tip.

Nowadays, consumers are changing the market dynamics. They have become more critical, active and informed. They pursue more personalised products/services and like to be involved in the design process. Additive manufacturing technologies allows this personalisation of products and new business models should embrace these trends to differentiate and gain competitive advantages. The application of 3D technology is widely spread in different areas including textile and apparel manufacturing. From a physical model, it is possible to create a digital model using 3D scanning technology for redesigning purposes. Among the various applications, the apparel industry has expanded with relevant gains, namely fitting and customisation. Several applications of 3D printing for garment, fashion accessories and footwear are described. These applications are based on 3D models that are digitised through 3D scanning and then modelled using CAD software. A case study of shoe redesign is presented in which engineering design tools are implemented, namely, topological and lattice structural design.

Additive manufacturing has a great potential since it allows the production of objects with complex geometries, often without auxiliary tools, while still using a wide range of materials. An example is Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), one of the technologies frequently referred to as 3D printing. One of the most widely used thermoplastic material in FFF is poly(lactic acid) (PLA). This polymer has superior mechanical properties compared to common polymers, in particular the modulus of elasticity, becoming a good substitute in agricultural applications and packaging. However, in sectors such as automotive and electronics, the application of PLA has some disadvantages, such as: low thermal resistance; low thermal deflection temperature; low crystallization rate and reduced impact resistance. With the rising demand for 3D printing solutions, especially for small size parts with specific properties, the development of new materials to suit those demands became of the utmost importance. Thus, one solution that has been adopted in recent years is the incorporation of nanoparticles in the thermoplastics. In this paper, an experimental setup was developed regarding the processing and characterization of two sets of PLA nanocomposites, one with carbon nanotubes (CNT) and another with graphene. The processed nanocomposites’ properties were tested through mechanical and melt flow index characterizations to study their suitability for 3D printing.

The need for new green and sustainable materials has been fostering the development, research and introduction of biodegradable materials from natural and renewable sources. Commercially available biodegradable plastics, while minimizing their environmental impact and exhibiting a set of properties that enable the obtainment of industrial components, usually require complex processing methods, are costly and have limited applicability.A new growth of natural resources based paradigm applied as production process is increasing its relevance as an alternative production process. New materials that combine fungal mycelium with waste materials as coffee grounds or wood waste can be considered as promising to fulfill this new paradigm.This new biomaterial mycelium based composites present controllable and adjustable properties during their growth, being able to grow and penetrate organic substrates, thus forming a tangle of branched fibers and a structure that presents some thermo-mechanical properties similar to the ones of plastics.The aim of the present study was the selection of the optimal inoculation temperature, light, humidity and the best substrate for the fastest and consistent mycelium growth. Four types of mycelium were incubated, namely Pleurotus ostreatus (382), Hypsizygus ulmarius (420), Ganoderma lucidum (560) and Trametes versicolor (620). The influence of the three substrates (coffee grounds, pine waste and general wood waste) on the growth was analyzed both morphologically and thermo-mechanically by means of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray micro computed tomography (microCT).

There is an increasing demand for the use of sustainable materials in marine applications. Thus, the ability of using raw-materials directly from ocean waste effectively contributes to enhance circularity by design in these sensitive ecosystems. Considering the favorable strength-to-weight ratio of composite materials, they usually tend to get selected for nautical applications. In these polymer composites, glass fibers and carbon fibers are usually chosen as reinforcements due to their specific strength and ease of manipulation. However, the use of natural fibers as fillers for composites in marine applications would be beneficial due to the fact that they are biodegradable and have a much lower environmental impact than glass or carbon fibers. Thus, the purpose of current research is to test and assess the use of red algae as filler for polymer composites in marine applications.

Despite the extensive capabilities of Laser-Powder Directed Energy Deposition (LP-DED), compared to other metal additive manufacturing processes, the use of LP-DED in industry is still limited as a result of the limited knowledge on the relationships between the process parameters and mechanical behaviour. In this work, the quality of AISI 316L samples, produced by means of LP-DED and evaluated in terms of surface roughness, residual stresses and microstructure, is linked to the scanning strategy. The outcomes confirm that the deposition strategy plays a key role in the definition of the final properties of specimens.

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is a technology for additive manufacturing consisting in the fusion of a fine metal power layer by layer. This procedure is very interesting to generate components with complex geometry and eventually composed of different materials. This novel technology opened new opportunities. A cylindrical geometry is proposed here, with an internal circular crack placed at the center of the specimen, as shown in Fig. 1. This new specimen geometry is interesting to study fatigue crack growth (FGC) in vacuum, which is important for a better understanding of FCG mechanisms. The environment inside internal cracks is likely similar to a vacuum environment since it is shut off from air, leading to negligible effect of oxidation or gas absorption. This way, the complex apparatus typically used to develop fatigue studies in vacuum, is avoided. Fig. 1. Cylindrical specimen with internal crack.

This paper addresses the fatigue behaviour of selective laser melted samples subjected to variable amplitude loading. In a first stage, a series of low-cycle fatigue tests is performed to identify an energy damage parameter able to correlate the load history with the fatigue lifetime. In a second stage, an energy-life curve is established on the basis of two tests performed under pulsating loading conditions. Finally, fatigue lifetime of samples tested at variable-amplitude loading are successfully predicted using the energy-life curve previously established along with an adequate fatigue damage accumulation law.

The last few decades in the automotive industry have been marked by a heavy concern with the environment, saving energy and reducing material wastage, while aiming to maintain good mechanical properties, essential in the components usage. Additive manufacturing (AM) techniques present themselves as a viable option in the matter, with Laser Metal Deposition (LMD), rising as one of the most promising techniques within this category, capable of producing near-net shape components, with a layer upon layer construction of three-dimensional solid parts from a 3D CAD model, with good mechanical properties and acceptable surface finishing. Laser Metal Deposition is a relatively recent technique, which is made noticeable by the lack of clarification about the influence of several parameters in the final components characteristics, ultimately leading to a scarce availability of the process in the market. This paper aims to clarify and evaluate, how LMD produced parts can suit the automotive industry, by measuring and analysing their behaviour under several mechanical tests. These mechanical tests have specific focus on wear and abrasion behaviour, as well as elastic properties determination, as these are the characteristics that allow a better overview over the expected performance of LMD components for automotive applications.

Bioink design and assessment for tissue engineering replacement is a key topic of research. This article investigates suitable photocurable alginate bioink precursors for bioprinting and the fabrication of 3D constructs for cartilage replacements. Alginate chemically modified with methacrylate anhydride groups is considered and assessed using different techniques. 2% Alginate methacrylate (AlgMA) solutions containing different concentrations of methacrylate and different reaction times were investigated. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) results show the ability to tune the unsaturation degree by changing the reaction conditions. Rheological characterization results show that all alginate methacrylate precursor solutions exhibit a shear thinning behavior. Biocompatibility and cytotoxicity results were no cytotoxicity was observed.

This paper investigates the use of polymer-ceramic composite scaffolds for bone regeneration. Different ratios between Poly-εcaprolactone (PCL) and Hydroxyapatite (HA) were considered. Scaffolds were produced using two different lay-down patterns (0/90° and 0/45°), and pore sizes (350 μm, 500 μm and 700 μm). Compressive and cell proliferation tests are reported. Human adipose derived stem cells (hADSCs) were used for the biological characterization.

Skin is a complex and very important tissue, playing a significant protective and regulatory function. It is also prone to a large number of wounds and defects due to external factors such as temperature, chemical agents, and radiation. However, minimizing the risk of infection in the wound area and accelerating the skin healing process are still relevant research challenges. This paper investigates a novel wound dressing based on polycaprolactone (PCL), a synthetic biocompatible and biodegradable polymer, and honey- Surgihoney®. Wound dressing meshes were produced using solution electrospinning. Different polymer solutions were prepared by mixing PCL and Surgihoney® with acetic acid. Process conditions were optimised to create suitable meshes with uniform fiber diameters and minimal presence of beads. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis (FTIR) was used to investigate the incorporation of Surgihoney® on PCL meshes. Meshes were also biologically assessed using human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Results show that the presence of Surgihoney® has a positive impact on cell attachment and proliferation.

Effects of mold removal methods in fabrication of cellulose hydrogel objects were investigated in the present work. Cellulose was dissolved in 7 wt% NaOH/12 wt% urea aqueous solution and thermally gelled at 55 °C in three different mold materials, Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) as a common 3D printing material, SolidscapeTM wax, specifically designed as a 3D printing cast material, and sacrificial casting wax (Lost Wax), commonly used for casting. After completion of the gelling process, the molds were removed from the cellulose gel by using a solvent for the ABS mold and melting the waxes in hot water. At the same time, the solvent was extracted from the gel and the cellulose hydrogel regenerated. The results show that mold materials and their associated removal methods have a significant effect on the mechanical properties and microstructure of cellulose hydrogel and cause shrinkage. Larger pore sizes decreased the compression strength and modulus of cellulose hydrogels samples. A balance between the porosity and density for a cellulose hydrogel part must be established for the specific applications.

Within the fashion industry, 3D printing can be used for producing individualized products by 3D printing on textile fabrics. One of the main issues of 3D printed geometries on textile fabrics is the adhesion between both materials. Continuing our previous research, other textile fabrics are used as substrate for 3D printing. Again, washing tests which simulate the real use of the textile fabric for garment production indicate that round shapes and thin objects are uncritical to be washed compared to higher objects and square shapes, which tend to separate after the first or the second washing cycle. For nine textile materials under investigation, no separation was found at all for the first 5 washing cycles for two of them. Finally, a full construction cycle including 2D and 3D design, simulation, 3D printing and garment production is presented.

Nearly Zero Energy Buildings will require high-performance building envelopes, though the building sector is currently a major contributor to the world’s energy consumption and related CO2 emissions. Innovative advanced materials, such as smart or functionally graded materials are being developed to better adapt buildings to environmental needs. This paper presents a brief overview of novel advanced materials for passive/kinetic facades. There is a great potential for 3D/4D printing building components to address actual and future built environmental challenges. 3D printing buildings are still in its infancy, several limitations and barriers need to be addressed, though architects and engineers must keep looking forward and the rise of 4D design could bring “life” to buildings.