Protection of Electrical Power Transmission Systems

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. 1. Introduction

   Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

   Abstract

   This book describes the main types of protection in transmission systems and includes sections on transducers, overcurrent relays, distance protection, differential protection, and auto-reclose relaying. The final section introduces the fast-growing field of numeric protection, where relaying decisions are made through calculations performed by microprocessor-based relay hardware. The fast-operating speed and high dependability of numeric relays make them especially suited to the transmission environment.

3. 2. Transducers

   Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

   Abstract

   By the end of this chapter, you will be able to apply the principles of setting up the basic equivalent circuits of a voltage transformer (VT) and a current transformer (CT) in real-world protection relay measurements. This knowledge will enable you to clearly distinguish between the two transformers’ primary differences in design criteria and set up an equivalent circuit of a capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) as used in protection relays. You will also be equipped to define the steady-state and transient errors (including the effect of saturation) and the accuracy requirements of the measuring transformer in practical scenarios.

4. 3. Overcurrent Relays

   Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

   Abstract

   Upon completing this chapter, you will be equipped to list the differences between the different types of overcurrent relays and their characteristics. More importantly, you will understand the crucial need for relay coordination of relay characteristics. This understanding will enable you to describe the procedure required to determine relay settings and the use of an overcurrent relay as backup protection. You will also appreciate the need to apply computers for complex and intelligent coordination.

5. 4. Distance Protection

   Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

   Abstract

   When you have finished this chapter, you should be able to: List the main types of distance protection characteristics and their advantages and disadvantages. List the measurements used for distance relay comparators. Describe the central electrotechnical distance relays. Explain the operation of the block average comparator. Describe the use of three-zone stepped distance protection. Give the derivation of the residual compensation factor. Describe the operation of different polarization methods and their response to close-up faults. Describe the operation of the standard communication to enhance distance protection schemes. Show how the operation of a directional earth fault protection scheme is used to strengthen a distance protection scheme’s performance. Describe the performance of a distance relay to power swings and the need to inhibit its operation.

6. 5. Current Differential Protection

   Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

   Abstract

   When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to define the basic principle of current differential protection. This includes a clear understanding of the concept of bias, which is a crucial principle in current differential protection. Identifying the need for bias and being able to derive both biases and operate quantities is a key skill that will make you feel more skilled and proficient. You will also be able to assess the advantages and disadvantages of different types of current differential protection schemes and understand the requirement for a sound, reliable communications system in differential protection.

7. 6. Auto-Reclose for Transmission Systems

   Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

   Abstract

   Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to list the leading causes of faults in transmission systems and understand the practical implications of this knowledge. This understanding will enable you to describe the likelihood of faults remaining permanently and the mechanism by which an arc may be re-struck. You will also be able to explain the delay settings on auto-reclose relays and their role in preventing system failures in real-world scenarios.

8. 7. Numeric Protection

   Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

   Abstract

   When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to: Describe how a microprocessor communicates with its peripherals. List the primary components found within the hardware of a numeric relay. Explain how analog busbar signals are converted into numeric values. Explain the cause of the aliasing of sampled signals. Describe how a digital filter works and why analog and digital filters are used in a numeric relay. Describe how values may be converted into phasor form using the discrete Fourier transform. In addition, you will have a comprehensive understanding of the operation of a numeric distance relay and a numeric current differential relay, which will make you feel confident and competent in dealing with these critical components in protection systems.

9. 8. Smart Grid Operation and Control

   Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

   Abstract

   When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to understand electric grid performance—conventional transmission technologies, smart transmission technologies, state-of-the-art (FACTS and HVDC) device operations and control, and the future outlook of smart device operations. You will be able to make smart and rigorous approach to calculate the operating conditions for an overcurrent protection system used for the protection of radial feeders and calculation for the settings of directional overcurrent relays in a ring distribution system. You will be able to use smart calculate conditions in distance protection system using stepped characteristics and calculate conditions in a current differential protection network used for unit protection.

10. 9. Microgrid Operation and Control

    Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

    Abstract

    At the end of this chapter, you will learn about the Microgrid, a topic directly relevant to the field of study in electrical engineering. This includes independent active and reactive power control, correction of voltage sag and system imbalances, and meeting the grid’s load dynamics requirements. This chapter also covers the classification of microgrids, the merits and demerits of AC and DC microgrid functionality, and the functionality of hybrid microgrids. Finally, this chapter will discuss the performance comparison of DC and AC microgrids, providing insights directly applicable to the work and studies in electrical engineering. Cyber and information programs are also discussed in this chapter.

11. 10. Power Transmission Line Characteristics

    Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

    Abstract

    When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to: Determine the capacitance and inductance of lines and cables in simple regular arrangement. Calculate the voltage induced between parallel arrangements of conductors. Setup a line representation using four-terminal network to calculate the conditions on lines. Use characteristic impedance to calculate changes in conditions on a transmission line. Use π and T models of transmission lines to make simple calculation of voltage, current, load flow and power factor conditions on a line. Construct a simple chart to show how the operating condition of a line may be changed by changes in terminal voltages. Use the simple chart, or mathematical analysis, to determine changes in power and var flow caused by changes in reactive loads.

12. 11. Artificial Intelligence Industrial Application

    Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

    Abstract

    At the end of this chapter, you will have been equipped with the knowledge of the general principles of AI components used for industrial applications. This includes probabilistic thinking, AI machine power and disruption, designing reliable systems, AI system reliable technology, AI machine prediction rules, machine learning in microgrid, tutorial on simulating probability AI models, and the challenges and future direction of AI in smart and microgrid operations and control. This knowledge will empower you to apply these principles in your professional endeavors.

13. 12. Cybersecurity and Information Program’s Power System

    Tariq Masood, Jamil Abdo, Arshad Ali, Atif Iqbal

    Abstract

    By the conclusion of this chapter, you will have a solid grasp of effective control and mitigation strategies essential for cybersecurity in industrial applications, particularly in the energy sector. You will gain insights into core cybersecurity principles and the operational challenges that arise within Electrical Power Systems, along with their implications and practical solutions. More importantly, you will have the opportunity to validate your understanding through cybersecurity process mapping and data collection techniques, boosting your confidence significantly. Finally, you will learn how to construct two distinct levels of project scope: first, for IT penetration testing and assessment; and second, specifically tailored to Electrical Power Systems and distributed electrical power generation. Embrace this knowledge to enhance your cybersecurity proficiency and secure our energy infrastructure effectively!

14. Backmatter