Quantitative Tourism Research in Asia

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Quantitative Methods, Applications, and Trends in Asian Tourism Research

   Sajad Rezaei

   Abstract

   This chapter states the purpose and goals of the entire book covering the status and future directions of quantitative tourism research in Asia. As an introductory part, this chapter describes the scope of the book and provides a brief explanation and summary of chapters. As such, this chapter highlights the research paradigm, philosophy and design, and other quantitative-specific dimensions before intruding on each chapter. The chapters of the book are divided into 3 main parts including understanding tourism industry in Asia (Part I), the current status of quantitative techniques (Part II), and future directions for Asian tourism researches (Part III). In fact, the introduction chapter implicitly discusses how tourism context might be different from the other settings and argues that the creation of knowledge even in quantitative data analysis to some extent is context dependent. Therefore, this chapter discusses an overview of data analysis strategies that is often overlooked by researchers.

3. Understanding Tourism Industry in Asia

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 2. Systematic Reviews in Asia: Introducing the “PRISMA” Protocol to Tourism and Hospitality Scholars

      Saeed Pahlevan Sharif, Paolo Mura, Sarah N. R. Wijesinghe

      Abstract

      Reviews of the literature have been regarded as essential exercises to assess the nature of knowledge produced in a field of inquiry, its gaps, and possible future developments. Despite this, studies assessing the nature and quality of the systematic review papers published in the tourism literature are scarce. This chapter provides a systematic review of systematic reviews published in hospitality and tourism journals by scholars affiliated with Asian institutions. More specifically, by considering the items of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses, also known as PRISMA (Liberati A et al, PLoS Med 6(7):e1000100, 2009), this chapter reviews whether and how they have been employed in the systematic reviews conducted in the field of tourism and hospitality. By doing so, this study enhances our understanding of the procedures followed by tourism scholars in conducting systematic reviews. It is expected that this study would provide researchers with best-practice guidelines for conducting a systematic review and pave the way for researchers to adopt PRISMA in their studies.

   3. Chapter 3. The Relationship Between Tourism Industry and Economic Growth: A Panel Data Analysis for ASEAN Member Countries

      Mustafa Öztürk, Ali Ihtiyar, Osman Nuri Aras

      Abstract

      The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is one of the best performing regions in the world in terms of economic growth. Tourism industry is one of the sources for ASEAN region to realize higher economic growth. Tourism is a significant driver of economic growth and a potential strategic industry for economic growth in all of ASEAN member countries. In other words, tourism is a key economic sector that has implications for societies and cultures in this region.

      In this chapter the relationship between tourism industry and economic growth in ASEAN countries is studied. Tourism receipts, export revenues, and foreign direct investment are the variables that were analyzed to determine how effective they are on the GDP of the ASEAN member countries. For that panel data analysis is used. Panel data is the most available method to study on common characteristics of country groups as it was in this case. Logarithmic values of the variables are included in to the analysis. First of all, stationarity of the variables was tested with Levin, Lin, and Chu; Im, Pesaran, and Shin W-stat; ADF-Fisher Chi-square, PP-Fisher Chi-square, and all variables are eliminated from unit root. After that panel data analysis was performed via EViews 8 statistical program. There are some studies used the method in tourism.

      The results of the analysis show that there are statistically significant relations between GDP, export, and tourism. But the effect of the foreign direct investment on the GDP is not significant as it was seen in many empirical studies before. The coefficient of the export and the tourism are low maybe because of the economic diversity of the ASEAN countries. This means that the region is available for tourism investments and has potential to invite more tourists. The coefficient of the export and the tourism is low maybe because of the economic diversity of the ASEAN countries as well as the lack of enough investment and the lack effective tourism policies. For example, Singapore is export-oriented country, and the rate of the export on the GDP is so high, and Cambodia is tourism oriented, whereas Myanmar has no effective policies to invigorate the tourism and the export.

      Highlights:

      • First contribution analyzing ASEAN tourism receipts and its effect on the GDP.
      • Panel data model which is the most available method to study on common characteristics of country groups.
      • External demand to the economies of ASEAN countries as goods, services, and local assets.
      • Tourism receipts and the export revenues seem effective on the GDP.
      • Some of ASEAN countries are export oriented, while the others are tourism oriented.

   4. Chapter 4. Hospitality Competitiveness Index for Indian States and Union Territories Using Multi-Criteria TOPSIS Model

      Kshitiz Sharma, Mihir Dash, Madhumita Guha Majumder, Moutushi Ganguli Sharma

      Abstract

      The tourism sector has become an important contributor for the economic rise of India in the global scenario, with both domestic and foreign tourists wanting to engage in tourism activity more than ever. Multiple destinations in India offer them bouquet of tourism and simultaneously confuse them too in terms of suitable destination selection to visit. The present study compares Indian states and union territories in terms of hospitality competitiveness index. The study considers Hemmington’s framework on hospitality that includes five dimensions: host-guest relationship, generosity, performance, the small surprises, and the buying experience. The multi-criteria decision method Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) is used for the empirical analysis. Data for the study pertained to the year 2014 and was collected from various available reliable sources.

      The proposed methodology will help the Ministry of Tourism, India, to give a ranking measurement of Indian states and union territories on hospitality competitiveness every year. The results can facilitate easy selection of a safer, better, and hospitable destination for tourists.

   5. Chapter 5. Co-integration and Causality Analysis Between Tourism Sector and GDP in Cambodia

      Osman Nuri Aras, Mustafa Öztürk, Ali Ihtiyar

      Abstract

      Tourism sector has emerged as one of the most important service sectors in the global economy including Cambodia especially in recent 25 years, benefiting destinations and communities worldwide.

      The objective of this chapter is to investigate and analyze the contribution of tourism sector in the economic development in Cambodia.

      After the cessation of conflict and the start of establishing political stability in 1993, the tourism sector has started to be a significant and very dynamic engine of economic growth and generator of foreign exchange revenues in Cambodia. For this reason, this study covers the period after the early 1990s when Cambodia opened its door to the world.

      In this study, the relationship between Cambodian tourism receipts and gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate is analyzed. Johansen co-integration test was performed to identify whether there was a long-term relationship between the variables. Then vector error correction mechanism (VECM) was used to identify the existence of short-run relationship between variables. Finally, residual tests were performed to check if the model is stable and desirable. E-views 8 statistical program is used for data analysis.

      According to the results of the study, Johansen co-integration test verifies that GDP, tourism receipts, and export revenues have long-term association. The VEC Granger Causality/Block Exogeneity Wald Tests show that the causality from tourism receipts to GDP is statistically significant. And also this study shows that the tourism policies and the tourism revenues are more effective on the GDP than the export policies and the revenues.

4. Current Trends and Applications

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 6. Regression Analysis with Dummy Variables: Innovation and Firm Performance in the Tourism Industry

      Jung Wan Lee, Parahny Manorungrueangrat

      Abstract

      The chapter demonstrates an application of correlation and regression analysis in tourism research. The chapter provides the concepts of product moment correlation, partial and part correlation, regression, and regression with dummy variables. The chapter provides, in particular, an application of regression analysis with dummy variables to estimate the economic effects of innovation on firm financial performance in the tourism industry of an economy in Asia. The paper examines signs and significance of the relationship between technological innovation and firm financial performance in the tourism industry of Thailand. The study employs multiple regression analysis with dummy variables, correlation analysis (i.e., the Pearson correlation), and chi-square tests (i.e., the Pearson chi-square test), and the associated statistics are explained. The dataset includes a total of 188 data points from 46 listed firms in tourism in the Stock Exchange of Thailand over a period of five fiscal years, 2011–2015.

   3. Chapter 7. Quantitative Dimension of India’s Tourism Trajectory in the Post-reform Era

      K. R. Pillai

      Abstract

      Tourism occupies a prominent place in the development strategy of the country, due to its vast potential and multiplier effect through spillovers and linkages. Tourism multiplier is an all-encompassing indicator to measure its economic essence owing to its impressive inter-sectoral linkages. India could leverage the travel-centric traits of the global population by creating a conducive destination attribute through enabling policy and advisory services. Both due to the splendid destination attributes and facilitating policy milieu, India claims a sizeable slice in the global visitation pie. The ‘Incredible India’ call has conferred ample mileage in its tourism campaign in the international fora. The various initiatives taken by the government to promote tourism as a growth engine have amply supported the phenomenal growth in visitation and its positive spillover in the country. In this backdrop, the proposed study traces the longitudinal trends of various tourism-related indicators, relevant to India, corroborating policy levels. The scope of the study is limited to foreign tourists’ arrival in the country and its associated quantitative dimensions. The relevant data for the research will be elicited from Centre for Monitoring of Indian Economy’s online repository through institutional access. The database comprises of foreign tourist arrival in gender and selected nationality dimensions, FOREX earnings from tourism, profitability and industry returns positions. The major analytical tools were CAGR, correlation, t-test, one-way ANOVA and MANOVA. The results of analysis confirm impressive strides in the variables taken for analysis.

   4. Chapter 8. A Quantitative Analysis of Intercultural Communication and Personality: The Case of Coffee Shop Consumers in Cambodia

      Ali Ihtiyar, Osman Nuri Aras, Mustafa Öztürk

      Abstract

      The article aims to better understand the impact of intercultural communication and personality on customer satisfaction and word of mouth and intention to revisit and to pay more in coffee stores in Cambodia. In this endeavour, the study illustrates the unique context of intercultural communication to highlight several improvements and to encourage the advancement of intercultural communication in the hospitality and tourism literature in Cambodia. Based on the established theories, the study assesses the role of customers’ personality on intercultural communication competence and perceived cultural distance and its impact on interrole congruence and interaction comfort empirically. The research assists in strengthening communication strategies, which is required intercultural communication adjustments in multicultural hospitality business environment. The intercultural communication is expected to improve the tourism industry competitiveness when it positively influences interrole congruence and interaction comfort among service encounters in the industry. To initiate the research, data was gathered by questionnaires within selected coffee stores in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The measurement of the constructs and their interrelationships were examined based on partial least square structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The proposed framework provides partly statistically significant relationships among the constructs. Furthermore, the study reveals additional insights into some managerial and theoretical solutions for addressing the intercultural communication of service encounters in the Cambodian hospitality industry. These contributions will postulate an impetus for future research in various service settings.

   5. Chapter 9. Structural Equation Modeling with Path Analysis: Antecedents of Corporate Commitment to Sustainable Tourism

      Jung Wan Lee

      Abstract

      The chapter demonstrates an application of structural equation modeling (SEM) and path analysis (PA) in tourism research, and the associated statistics are described. First, we discuss the basic concepts of SEM, followed by an explanation of the key statistics and terms associated with this procedure. Then we describe the procedure for conducting SEM, including second-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Finally, we describe the related technique of path analysis. In doing so, this chapter provides an example of structural equation modeling with a path model, of which path analysis assumes that all variables are measured without error so that it has a more restrictive set of assumptions than general structural equation models. The study examines antecedents of corporate commitment to sustainable tourism and corporate environmental responsibility in a country in Asia. The study employs factor analysis (i.e., exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and internal consistency reliability tests) and structural equation modeling analysis and path analysis (i.e., the analysis of moment structures and regression analysis) using 386 samples collected from tourism employees in South Korea.

   6. Chapter 10. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling in Asian Tourism and Hospitality Research: A Systematic Review

      Imtiaz Mostafiz, Yeasmin Islam, Saeed Pahlevan Sharif

      Abstract

      During the recent years, a growing number of tourism and hospitality researchers have used partial least squares structural equation modeling in their studies. However, little is known about the application of PLS-SEM in Asian tourism and hospitality research. This chapter was conducted to fill this research gap by assessing to what extent Asian research in tourism and hospitality has followed the guidelines recommended by the most prominent literature on PLS-SEM. Sixty-four partial least squares structural equation modeling studies conducted by Asian researchers and/or on Asian contexts that were published in 66 tourism and hospitality journals from 2000 to the end of February 2017 were systematically reviewed. The results identified some weaknesses in conducting the analysis which should be addressed in future empirical studies. The results of this systematic review provide tourism and hospitality researchers with best practice guidelines for conducting partial least squares structural equation modeling in their studies.

   7. Chapter 11. Structural Equation Modelling with Second-Order Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Critical Factors Influencing Consumer Behavior in Medical Tourism

      Jung Wan Lee, Michael Kwag

      Abstract

      The chapter demonstrates an application of structural equation modelling (SEM) with latent variables in tourism research, and the associated statistics are described. First, we discuss the basic concepts of SEM, followed by an explanation of the key statistics and terms associated with this procedure. Then we describe the procedure for conducting SEM, including second-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Finally, we describe the related technique of SEM analysis. In doing so, the chapter provides an application of structural equation modelling with latent variables, of which latent variables are hypothetical constructs that are invoked to explain observed covariation in behavior. The study aims to identify critical factors of consumer acceptance of medical tourism in Asia. The study employs factor analysis (i.e., exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and internal consistency reliability tests) and structural equation modelling analysis and path analysis (i.e., the analysis of moment structures and regression analysis) using the survey data collected from a sample of 486 international tourists who visited South Korea in 2014.

5. Future Directions

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Chapter 12. Positive and Negative Perceptions of Residents Toward Tourism Development: Formative or Reflective

      S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh, Shuhaida Md. Noor, Mastura Jaafar

      Abstract

      This paper investigates whether residents’ positive and negative perceptions of tourism development, in the Asian context, are reflective or formative in nature. This assessment assumes positive perceptions (PP) and negative perceptions (NP) as both unidimensional and multidimensional constructs inclusive of economic, social, cultural, and environmental components. Data for this study was collected from residents of the Lenggong World Heritage Site in Malaysia and analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), confirmatory tetrad analysis (CTA), and other recently developed fit models, such as geodesic discrepancy (d_G), unweighted least squares discrepancy (d_ULS), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). The results confirm the formative nature of PP and NP. In addition, the findings indicate that the PP and NP measurement model is best conceptualized as a reflective-formative second-order construct. This study makes a significant theoretical and methodological contribution to the resident perception literature, and the quantitative research in tourism. Future quantitative researches in resident perception field should take into consideration the formative nature NP and PP, when the research framework are conceptualized.

   3. Chapter 13. Vector Autoregressive Models with Multivariate Time Series: Spillovers of International Tourist Arrivals on a Local Economy

      Jung Wan Lee, Michael Kwag

      Abstract

      The chapter demonstrates an application of vector autoregressive models with time series in tourism research. The chapter describes how to apply vector autoregression with time series in a multivariate setting to estimate the short-run and long-run effects of international tourist arrivals on a local economy and associated economic spillovers in the local economy in Asia. The study employs unit root tests (i.e., the augmented Dickey and Fuller test, the Phillips and Perron test, the Ng and Perron test, and the Kwiatkowski et al. test), cointegration test (i.e., the Johansen cointegration test), and vector autoregressive models with multivariate time series (i.e., vector autoregression analysis, model diagnostic tests, residual diagnostic tests, and impulse response tests) using quarterly time series data, which are available from the first quarter of 1970 to the third quarter of 2012 (172 observations) retrieved from the Bank of Korea.

   4. Chapter 14. Beyond Structural Equation Modelling in Tourism Research: Fuzzy Set/Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fs/QCA) and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)

      Naser Valaei, Sajad Rezaei, Ree C. Ho, Fevzi Okumus

      Abstract

      This chapter discusses the methods of applying both the data envelopment analysis (DEA) and fuzzy set/qualitative comparative analysis (fs/QCA) in tourism research. Unlike conventional quantitative methods in social sciences, research such as system of regression and multivariate procedures are mostly based on frequency and consistency thresholds. The basis of fuzzy set analysis is the fact that there is no “single correct answer”. Indeed, fuzzy sets fill the gap between qualitative and quantitative methods of measurement, and QCA is one of the few methods that cover “limited diversity”. This method addresses the shortcoming of most traditional methods which presume that causal conditions are “independent” constructs and the impact on the outcome variable are both additive and linear. In addition, DEA is a nonparametric quantitative data analysis method that is used to examine the relationship between inputs to a production process and the outputs of that process. It acts as a mathematical programming technique to develop and provide the best possible solutions. This chapter shows that application of fuzzy set/QCA (fs/QCA) and DEA method in Asian tourism research would yield a fruitful contribution to the literature.

   5. Chapter 15. Ethical Considerations in Quantitative Tourism and Hospitality Researches

      Maryam Emami, Sajad Rezaei, Behrooz Sangani, See-Kwong Goh

      Abstract

      Research ethics is an extremely important part of every study. Tourism scholars receive guidance on ethical issues in research from different sources throughout their careers such as experiences from participation in research activities, quantitative data analysis or research methods methodology courses, short trainings, workshops, professional readings, and involving in peer-review processes. However, in a structured quantitative context, such as tourism and hospitality, the acquaintances and relationships between the research philosophy, design, and analysis choices related to research ethics are largely implicit and informal. That is, methodology scholars and research advisors might convey ethical principles and conducts about research design and data analysis, by reporting experientially and by modeling appropriate professional behavior. Thus, this chapter aims to provide a practical review of ethical issues in quantitative methods in tourism and hospitality researches. More specifically, this chapter focuses on several potential issues that might emerge in conducting research methods in tourism context. Data collection method and questionnaire design in this regard are considered as practical examples. Moreover, based on the principles of ethical issues in behavioral research, this chapter proposes and offers substantial guides in anticipating ethics in tourism and hospitality research.