Radiation Safety

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. What Does Ionizing Radiation Mean?

Abstract

What is ionizing radiation? Where does it come from? What is it made of? To start answering these questions it is important to remember some atomic physics basics and how ionizing radiation interacts with matter.

Haydee Domenech

Chapter 2. Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation

Abstract

The study of the biological effects of ionizing radiation started practically at the same time as the discovery of X-rays in 1895. Since the techniques and methods accepted today to quantify radiation dose were absent at that time, first findings and studies were barely qualitative. Current standards to protect people against ionizing radiation are based on a large amount of information on its possible health effects.Current standards to protect people against ionizing radiation are based on a large amount of information on its possible health effects.

Haydee Domenech

Chapter 3. Radiation Sources: Benefits and Risks

Abstract

X-rays tubes and radium found immediately application in medicine from the discovery of radioactivity at the beginning of the 20th century of available radionuclides have significantly grown, and countless advances in nuclear science and technology have helped further developments in medicine, industry, agriculture, education, and scientific research.

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Chapter 4. Basic Quantities and Units in Radiation Safety

Abstract

To characterize and measure ionizing radiation, we need quantities that describe the source, the radiation field at the point of interest, and the energy deposited in the material with which ionizing radiation interacts. The values assigned to the various quantities may be obtained by calculations and/or measurements.

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Chapter 5. Measuring Instruments and Methods

Abstract

Diverse methods and instruments are available for detecting and measuring the presence of radiation. But no simple device can detect all kinds of radiation and not one device is useful in all situations. The type of radiation, the level of radiation, and the energy resolution have to be considered, among other features, when selecting the proper instrument.

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Chapter 6. Dose Assessment

Abstract

Dose calculation to carefully evaluate the absorbed dose in any exposure situation, or to reconstruct a dose after an emergency situation, could be, and in fact is, a very complex task which, in many cases, needs simulation using numerical integration.

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Chapter 7. Shielding

Abstract

Shielding, in conjunction with time and distance, has been all along one of the rules of thumb for protection. Placing the appropriate shielding between radiation source and individuals can reduce dose from external exposure to acceptable levels..

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Chapter 8. Exposure Situations

Abstract

While taking full advantage of the benefits of radiation sources—for both society and economic—its responsible use means that it is based upon strictly regulations and a set of measures to avoid the occurrence of harmful tissue reactions (deterministic effects) and keep the likelihood of exposures, the number of people exposed, and the magnitude of individual doses as low as reasonably achievable; including dose constraints and reference levels.

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Chapter 9. Regulations and Regulatory Control

Abstract

To control radiological protection and safety of radiation sources; to provide for the instruments to enforce compliance with national and international requirements; and to maintain the appropriate standards for protection is required a national infrastructure.

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Chapter 10. The Management System for Safety

Abstract

Aside from the basic elements of time, distance and shielding, and a comprehensive set of regulations and high-quality standards, a management system properly established, and a solid groundwork for notification, authorization, and inspection are key components for a stable and sustainable safety regime.

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Chapter 11. General Principles of Radiation Protection

Abstract

For practical reasons, the ICRP adopted in the 1950s a linear no threshold (LNT) dose—response relationship, a model indicating that there will be some risk even at low doses, that has served as a base for radiation protection regulations. While the debate over the effects of low level radiation is still contentious and unsettled, the sole application of permissible limits to the inferred risks is until presently considered not enough, and a system based on the general principles of justification, optimization and dose limits is required to protect individuals, society as a whole and the environment.

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Chapter 12. Occupational Radiation Protection

Abstract

Occupational exposure is the radiation exposure incurred at work, i.e., planned exposure of workers at nuclear power plants and fuel cycle facilities, as well as of workers who use radiation sources, accelerators, and X-ray machines in medicine, scientific research, education, agriculture, and industry, etc. Occupational exposure also includes radon in workplaces other than mines, and certain occupations involving exposure to ionizing radiation from natural sources. Workers performing recovery operations after an accident, or in an existing exposure situation, can be regarded as occupationally exposed as well.

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Chapter 13. Public Radiation Protection

Abstract

Protection of the public is also an integral part of the radiation safety program. The general public is normally exposed to various sources of ionizing radiation of different origin. These sources range from natural sources to man-made radiation sources. Hence, when managing radioactive waste, radioactive discharges, or transporting radioactive sources, it is also important to consider its impact on members of the public who may occasionally come into contact with the waste, release, or source.

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Chapter 14. Radioactive Waste Management

Abstract

Radioactive waste is any material—liquid, solid or gas—without further use, which contains or is contaminated with radionuclides at concentrations or activities exceeding the clearance levels established by the regulatory authority. To protect the public and the environment from avoidable exposures, radioactive waste management should include a whole set of administrative and operational activities required for the handling, pretreatment, treatment, conditioning, transport, storage and disposal of radioactive waste.

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Chapter 15. Transport of Radioactive Materials

Abstract

To protect the public and the environment, there are internationally agreed regulations for the safe transport of radioactive materials that prescribe technical requirements to limit the external radiation and contamination from packages, assure the containment of its radioactive content, and prevent criticality and excessive heat during transport.

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Chapter 16. Emergency Exposure Situations

Abstract

The assessment of the probability, magnitude, and consequences of potential exposures, and, therefore, the introduction of the corresponding engineering protections, is a requirement for the activities and facilities where radiation sources are used. It is also a requirement that emergency plans be prepared to deal with and mitigate the consequences of such potential exposures should any of them occur. Emergency plans are reviewed and improved on a regular basis as well, to demonstrate their functionality and suitability.

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Chapter 17. Radiation Protection Program Details

Abstract

As provided by 10 CFR § 20.1101, each licensee shall develop, document, and implement a radiation protection program commensurate with the scope and extent of licensed activities, and sufficient to ensure compliance with the regulations. The radiation protection program details for various applications that could be of interest, and used as an information source for other programs, are discussed herein.

Haydee Domenech

Backmatter