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2016 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

Re-thinking Estuarine Ecosystem Governance in the WIO Region

verfasst von : Akunga Momanyi, Ph.D.

Erschienen in: Estuaries: A Lifeline of Ecosystem Services in the Western Indian Ocean

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

It is undisputable that estuarine ecosystems are a vitally important component of the rich environmental and cultural heritage of the Western Indian Ocean (WIO). Estuaries are extremely important in providing cultural, provisioning and regulatory services.

There are a myriad of governance frameworks and structures at the global, regional, national and even local levels that affect the WIO region: generally on coastal and marine environmental protection, and less so on estuaries as such. There are remarkable examples at the regional level, including the 1987 Zambezi River System Agreement and its SADC Protocol and the Zambezi River Commission which together “represent the most ambitious approach to environmental protection of river basins in the developing world,” and “which exemplify the potential of common management in addressing environmental problems.” Other examples include the Inkomati River Basin and the Limpopo River Basin frameworks. It is apparent that regional river basin frameworks treat estuaries as part of international water courses or river basin systems.

As the case studies from Kenya, Mozambique and South Africa have demonstrated, the governance and institutional setting for coastal and marine environmental protection, including estuarine ecosystems, is quite robust. All the three countries have constitutional, legislative and policy frameworks that broadly address matters related to coastal and marine environmental protection generally, albeit with lack of specificity on estuarine ecosystem governance, with the remarkable exception of South Africa’s Integrated Coastal Management Act No 24 of 2008 which dedicates its Chapter 4 to estuaries. In this regard, South Africa provides a model worthy of emulation across the WIO region.

However, it is apparent from this study that the various international and national legal, institutional and policy frameworks concerning the governance of estuarine ecosystems in the region are generally inadequate, uncoordinated and weak. This scenario poses threats and challenges to the estuarine ecosystems necessitating a rethinking of the frameworks with a view to reforms. The key threats and challenges include: land-based and sea-based sources and activities causing pollution and degradation, policy and legislative inadequacies, limited institutional capacities, inadequate awareness, inadequate financial resources and mechanisms, as well as poor knowledge management, and the sheer complexity of some of the regimes established. On the positive side, opportunities include better understanding of the various causes and impacts of pollution and degradation of the coastal and marine environment as borne by the numerous scientific and technical studies; promising climate change regulation and mitigation interventions; and better legal, policy and institutional frameworks which emphasize integration, ecosystem or basin wide approaches and sustainable development.

Key recommendations towards better protection of estuarine ecosystems include further studies and reviews on estuarine ecosystems and their complex interactions with other ecosystems and their governance arrangements particularly in the context of land-sea interaction. Others include reviews of relevant international and national legal and other regulatory regimes to address better specificity on ecosystem governance.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Limpopo Estuary Mangrove Transformation, Rehabilitation and Management

Nächstes Kapitel Mapping Factors That Contribute to Coral Reef Resilience Using In situ and Satellite Data in East Africa

See, for example, UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat, 2009. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of Land Based Sources and Activities Affecting the Western Indian Ocean Coastal and Marine Environment, UNEP Nairobi, Kenya 378p; AFD/IDDRI (2011): Sick Seas and Oceans and the Challenges of Combating Land Based Pollution and Degradation: The Example of Western Indian Ocean Region, in A Planet for Life, (2011); UNEP, 2009: Regional Synthesis Report On Legal, Regulatory and Institutional Frameworks in the WIO Region. UNEP/GEF WIO-LaB Project Report. 114p UNEP/GEF/WIO-LaB/LTR/2009; UNEP, 2009: Regional Synthesis Report on Ratification and Implementation of International Environmental Conventions relevant to Land based Activities/Sources of Pollution of the Coastal and Marine Environment of the WIO Region, UNEP/GEF WIO-LaB Project Report. 77p UNEP/GEF/WIO-LaB/LTR/2009; UNEP/GPA Government of Kenya/NEMA, 2009: State of Coast Report 2009; 2004: “Physical Alteration and Destruction of Habitats in the Marine and Coastal Environment of Eastern Africa: Legal and Institutional Issues.

Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, Third Edition, (2009) Oxford University Press, p 535.

Ibid, p 536.

Ibid.

ibid.

“International water course” may be simply defined as including rivers, lakes, or ground water resources shared by two or more states. Such water courses will normally either form or straddle an international boundary, or in the case of rivers, they may flow through a succession of states (See Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, and Redgwell, ibid, p 536, citing McCaffrey, The Law of International Watercourses (2^nd ed, Oxford, 2007), chapter 2. Moreover, though not completely settled, the preferred geographical scope of watercourses is the basin approach. According to the Commentary to the 1966 Helsinki Rules, “The drainage basin is an indivisible hydrologic unit which requires comprehensive consideration in order to effect maximum utilization and development of any portion of its waters”.( ILA, Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Rivers, Report of 52^nd Conf (1966) 485). See also ILA, Berlin Rules on Water Resources (“Berlin Rules”), Report of 71^st Conf (2004) 344; Teclaff, The River Basin in History and Law (The Hague, 1967).

Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, Third Edition, (2009) Oxford University Press, p 536.

Ibid, p 572.

Ibid p 540.

Ibid, p 541.

McCaffrey, The Law of International Watercourses (2^nd ed, Oxford, 2007), ch. 10, cited favorably by Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, Redgwell, ibid. p 541.

Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, Third Edition, (2009) Oxford University Press, p 542.

For example, Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Commission of the River Oder Case, PCIJ Ser A No 23 (1929); Diversion of Water from the Meuse Case, PCIJ Ser A/B No 70 (1937); Lac Lanoux Arbitration, 24 ILR (1957) 101.

For example, 1997 Convention on Non Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, 36 ILM (1997) 719, 27 EPL (1997) 233, Articles 5, 6;1992 Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and Lakes (Helsinki), B&B Docs, 345, Article 2; ILA, Berlin Rules on Water Resources (“Berlin Rules”), Report of 71^st Conf (2004), 344, Article 12.

Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, Third Edition, (2009) Oxford University Press, p 542.

Ibid, p 544.

Ibid, citing Schwebel, II YbILC (1982) Pt 1, 76, para 70.

Ibid, citing, inter alia, McCaffrey, The Law of International Watercourses (2^nd ed, Oxford, 2007), p 147–70; Benvenisti, Sharing Transboundary Resources (Cambridge 2002).

Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, Third Edition, (2009) Oxford University Press, p 544.

Ibid., p 544.

1987 Botswana-Mozambique-Tanzania-Zambia-Zimbabwe Agreement. 27 ILM (1988).

1963 Act Regarding Navigation and Economic Cooperation between the States of the Niger Basin, in Ruster and Simma, International Protection of the Environment (New York, 1977) xi, 5633.

1959 Agreement Between the UAR and the Republic of the Sudan for the Full Utilization of Nile Waters, and the 1960 Protocol Establishing Permanent Joint Technical Committee, in UN, Legislative Texts and Treaty Provisions Concerning the Utilization of International Rivers for Purposes Other Than Navigation, UN Doc ST/LEG/Ser B/12, 143 ff.

Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, Third Edition, (2009) Oxford University Press, p 545.

1992 Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and Lakes (Helsinki), B&B Docs, 345.

1997 Convention on Non Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, 36 ILM (1997) 719, 27 EPL (1997) 233, Articles 8, 24.

Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, Third Edition, (2009) Oxford University Press, p 546.

Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region (1985 Nairobi Convention); Protocol concerning Protected Areas and Wild Flora and Fauna in the Eastern African Region; Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the Eastern African Region 21 June 1985, IELMT 985; Protocol on Land Based Sources and Activities in the Western Indian Ocean (2010 LBSA Protocol ). For the 2010 LBSA Protocol and 2010 Amended Nairobi Convention, see www.unep.org/nairobiconvention/

For example, the Zambezi River and Incomati River Basins discussed, infra.

UN General Assembly Resolution 2997(XXVII) on Establishment of Institutional and Financial Arrangements for International Environmental Cooperation (1972).

Ibid.

Convention on the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, 36 ILM (1997)719; 27 EPL (1997) 233.

The out flow of a river-where it transforms from being a freshwater system via an estuary into the saltwater marine environment, with all the cumulative impacts. In the WIO region, six key land based sectors account for estuarine ecosystem environmental impacts including alteration of river flow, degradation of water quality and alterations in river sediment loads: urbanization, agriculture and forestry, industry, mining, transportation, and energy production.

1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay) Misc 11 (1983) CMND 8941;21 ILM (1982) 1261.

Article 21(1) of the 1997 International Watercourses Convention defines “pollution of an international watercourse” as “any detrimental alteration in the composition or quality of the waters of an international watercourse which results directly or indirectly from human conduct”.

Article 24 (2) of the 1997 International Watercourses Convention defines management to include “(a) planning the sustainable development of an international watercourse and providing for the implementation of any plans adopted; and (b) otherwise promoting the rational and optimal utilization, protection and control of the watercourse”.

See, generally Part XII of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, and particularly Article 192, Article 194, Article 196 and Article 207.

Ibid, Articles 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, and 212.

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar) 996 UNTS 245; 11 ILM (1972) 963.

See https://www.savingcranes.org/lower-zambezi-valley-and-delta-program.html, accessed on 12 May 2015.

See http://wwf.panda.org/?206813/Tana-River-Delta-Ramsar-Site-Status-a-Plus-for-Coastal-East-Afric, accessed 12 May 2015.

https://www.savingcranes.org/lower-zambezi-valley-and-delta-program.html, accessed 12 May 2015.

Ibid.

Campbell, G.G. (1948). Two expeditions to Tongaland. African wildlife, 2(3): 53–56, cited in http://www.ewisa.co.za/misc/wetlands/defaultwetKZNkosibay.htm, accessed on 12 May 2015.

See http://ramsar.rgis.ch/cda/en/ramsar-documents-list-anno-southafrica/main/ramsar/1-31-218%5E16187_4000_0_, accessed on 12 May 2015.

http://www.ewisa.co.za/misc/wetlands/defaultwetKZNkosibay.htm, accessed 12 May 2015.

Ibid.

Ibid (Amended 2010 Nairobi Convention), Article 2.

Ibid.

Ibid, Article 3(1)

see www.unep.org/nairobiconvention/

UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat, 2009. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of Land Based Sources and Activities Affecting the Western Indian Ocean Coastal and Marine Environment, UNEP Nairobi, Kenya 378p, p 241.

1987 Botswana-Mozambique-Tanzania-Zambia-Zimbabwe Agreement. 27 ILM (1988).

See 40 ILM (2001), 317.

Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, Third Edition, (2009) Oxford University Press, p 579.

Ibid.

Malzbender and Earle (2007).

Ibid.

See generally, Chapter Five of the Constitution of Kenya 2010, and particularly Articles 69,70, 71 and 72.

Ibid, see Article 162 (2) (b) of the Constitution of Kenya 2010.

Ibid, generally Chapter 10, particularly Articles 185, 186, and 187 and Schedule Four of the Constitution of Kenya 2010.

The Environmental Management and Coordination Act No 8 of 1999. This framework law is currently under review to, inter alia, align it to the Constitution of Kenya 2010.

See, www.gpa.unep.org

http://www.wrma.or.ke/index.php/77-news/228-wrma-conducts-3rd-catchment-area-advisory-committee-induction.html, accessed 15 May 2015.

UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat (2010) Regional Synthesis Report on the Review of the Policy, Legal and Institutional frameworks in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) Region, UNEP, Nairobi Kenya 99p, p 14.

Ibid, p 13.

http://www.tarda.co.ke/about/

Ibid.

Ibid, The TARDA Act chapter 443 Laws of Kenya. (This law and other similar development authority legislations are under review).

Samoilys M, Osuka K, Maina GW (2011) Opportunities and challenges of current legislation for effective conservation in the Tana Delta: Pate Island coast of Kenya, CORDIO Status Report (Mombasa, Kenya). p. 5–9.

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar) 996 UNTS 245;11 ILM (1972) 963.

Ibid.

Ibid, p 183.

Ibid.

Ibid, p 184.

Ibid.

Mazivila R (2009) National report on legal, regulatory and institutional framework for land-based sources and activities management in Mozambique. Unpublished report submitted to UNEP/WIO-LaB Project/Nairobi Convention Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya. 72 pp.

Taucale Fransisco (2012): Water Resources of Mozambique and the Situation of the Shared Rivers, in www.unep.org/…/fransisco.doc, accessed on 15 May 2015.

Ibid.

https://www.savingcranes.org/lower-zambezi-valley-and-delta-program.html, accessed 12 May 2015.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid, p 28.

See https://www.dwa.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2012/Media%20release%20Catchment%20Management%20Agencies%20March%20%2030%202012.pdf

Ibid, p 56.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid, p 47.

Birnie, P.W, Boyle A.E, Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, Third Edition, (2009) Oxford University Press, p 547; UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat, 2009. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of Land Based Sources and Activities Affecting the Western Indian Ocean Coastal and Marine Environment, UNEP Nairobi, Kenya 378p, p178.

111

Ibid (UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat, 2009. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of Land Based Sources and Activities Affecting the Western Indian Ocean Coastal and Marine Environment, UNEP Nairobi, Kenya 378p, p195, 196).

112

Ibid.

113

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Titel: Re-thinking Estuarine Ecosystem Governance in the WIO Region
verfasst von: Akunga Momanyi, Ph.D.
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Estuaries: A Lifeline of Ecosystem Services in the Western Indian Ocean
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-25368-8

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-25370-1

Copyright-Jahr: 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25370-1_15

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