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2022 | Buch

Recent Progress in Lead-Free Solder Technology

Materials Development, Processing and Performances

herausgegeben von: Assoc. Prof. Mohd Arif Anuar Mohd Salleh, Dr. Mohd Sharizal Abdul Aziz, Prof. Dr. Azman Jalar, Dr. Mohd Izrul Izwan Ramli

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

Buchreihe : Topics in Mining, Metallurgy and Materials Engineering

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Über dieses Buch

This book highlights recent research progress in lead (Pb)-free solder technology, focusing on materials development, processing, and performances. It discusses various Pb-free solder materials’ development, encompassing composite solders, transient liquid phase sintering, and alloying. The book also details various Pb-free solder technology processing and performances, including flux modification for soldering, laser soldering, wave soldering, and reflow soldering, while also examining multiple technologies pertaining to the rigid and flexible printed circuit board (PCB). Some chapters explain the materials characterization and modeling techniques using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). This book serves as a valuable reference for researchers, industries, and stakeholders in advanced microelectronic packaging, emerging interconnection technology, and those working on Pb-free solder.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Development of Materials

Frontmatter
Recent Studies in the Development of Ceramic-Reinforced Lead-Free Composite Solder
Abstract
Until today, there have been abundant research studies conducted by various researchers to improve the existing lead-free solders’ properties with the current electronics packaging desired performances. One of the leading choices in upgrading the existing lead-free alloys is by ceramic composite technology approach. The addition of ceramic particles into lead-free solder has altered and subsequently improved monolithic solder’s microstructural, physical, thermal, electrical and mechanical properties. The ideal way to reincorporate ceramic powder particulates into the monolithic solder matrix is by utilising powder metallurgy (PM) routes under a solid state, consisting of mixing, compaction and sintering. Regarding the sintering step, microwave-assisted sintering technology consumes much lower energy with lesser heating time compared to the conventional sintering method. Generally, finer microstructure distribution enhanced the mechanical properties of the ceramic-reinforced composite material. Self-generated heat produced by sintered material makes microwave technology a great assistant in sintering processing. Some of the limitations and advantages in ceramic composite lead-free solder’s development are also described.
Norainiza Saud, Mohd Arif Anuar Mohd Salleh, Rita Mohd Said, Flora Somidin, Nur Syahirah Mohamad Zaimi, Mohd Izrul Izwan Ramli
Development of Geopolymer Ceramic-Reinforced Solder
Abstract
This chapter aims to provide a general understanding of the geopolymer usage as a ceramic reinforcement material in the solder alloy. The metal matrix composite (MMC) technique has been introduced to mix the reinforcement and matrix into composite solders. In MMC materials, the matrix used came from a metal group, and the reinforcement particles are either metallic or non-metallic. These reinforcement particles in lead-free solder could enhance the properties of the existing lead-free solder alloy. Moreover, the geopolymer ceramic as a reinforcement material could distribute homogeneously along the grain boundaries of solder alloys. The potential of geopolymer ceramic reinforced solders was fabricated via powder metallurgy assisted by a hybrid microwave sintering. The acceptable value of electrical conductivity obtained by geopolymer ceramic influenced the fast ionic conduction, which is used in applications such as solid-state batteries and electrochemical sensors. The chapter encapsulates the properties of geopolymer ceramics as a reinforcement material in solder application. It also includes a discussion and examples of the geopolymer ceramic synthesis and fabrication. The advantages of geopolymerisation as a self-fluxing agent have been discussed. This topic covers several types of geopolymer ceramic. Preparing the ceramic at lower sintering temperature within the same conventional sintering technique will give a significant achievement. The initial mechanism that involves geopolymerisation shows significant potential to reduce the sintering temperature of the geopolymer ceramic. The composition of sodium oxide (Na2O), which is contributed by the alkali activator, might act as a fluxing agent and help lower the sintering temperature of geopolymer ceramic. Hence, a low-temperature sintered geopolymer ceramic can be produced. To date, no research available reported on the usage of kaolin geopolymer ceramic on the lead-free solder alloy. Therefore, in this study, research on the usage of kaolin geopolymer ceramic as reinforcement materials to SAC305 lead-free solder alloy will be conducted as a fundamental to investigate the reaction of geopolymer ceramic toward SAC305 lead-free solder alloy.
Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Mohd Arif Anuar Mohd Salleh, Nur Nadiah Izzati Zulkifli, Nur Syahirah Mohamad Zaimi, Romisuhani Ahmad, Noorina Hidayu Jamil, Ikmal Hakem Aziz, Mohd Izrul Izwan Ramli
Surface Modifications on Ceramic Reinforcement for Tin-Based Composite Solders
Abstract
This chapter aimed to provide a general overview of several surface modifications’ techniques of ceramic reinforcements on the properties of composite solders. It is commonly known that composite solders experienced significant aggregation and non-wetting issues between the ceramic reinforcements and solder matrix, which makes the addition of the reinforcement phase inefficient in improving the properties of lead-free solders. Surface modification techniques such as pyrolysis, chemical route surface modification and metal plating have been developed over the years to address this issue and have shown progressive impact in improving the interface of the reinforcements and solder matrix. The chapter highlights the fundamental understanding, main parameters and setup, and latest developments on the surface-modified ceramic-reinforced composite lead-free solders. Finally, the chapter also summarised and discussed the advantages, current trends, and significant findings in this field.
Leong Wai Keong, Ahmad Azmin Mohamad, Muhammad Firdaus Mohd Nazeri
Molecular Dynamic of the Nanoparticle Reinforcement in the Pb-Free Solder During Reflow Soldering Process
Abstract
Nano-reinforcement in Pb-free solder has emerged as a potential alternative to improve lead-free solder’s mechanical and physical properties. With the aids of molecular dynamics simulation software, this study attempts to model the trajectory of doped nickel (Ni) nanoparticles in Sn100C solder during reflow soldering. A model that is capable of simulating Ni nanoparticle movement in Sn solder during three reflow soldering process phases. The simulation of Ni-reinforced solder was conducted at three different temperatures: room temperature (30 °C), soaking phase (150 °C), and reflow phase (250 °C) using LAMMPS software. The simulation provides the visualization of the accumulation and aggregation of Ni nanoparticles in the solder. This study better understands the Ni nanoparticles’ phenomenon in the solder paste during the reflow process.
Mohd Sharizal Abdul Aziz, I. N. Sahrudin, M. S. Rusdi, M. H. H. Ishak, C. Y. Khor, Mohd Arif Anuar Mohd Salleh
Recent Progress in Transient Liquid Phase (TLP) Solder for Next Generation Power Electronics
Abstract
There has been an increasing demand for more reliable high-temperature resistant solder joints in recent years. Developing a reliable high-temperature solder joint not containing lead (Pb) is crucial for advancing more environmentally friendly next generation power electronics. An innovative bonding approach called transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding is a promising method to produce a high-temperature Pb-free solder joint. This chapter reviews the generation power electronics applications using the TLP bonding method. In addition, the article presents a brief understanding of the advancement in soldering technology through the utilisation of the TLP bonding concept and its challenges.
Flora Somidin, Rita Mohd Said, Norainiza Saud, Mohd Arif Anuar Mohd Salleh
Advanced Assembly of Miniaturized Surface Mount Technology Components Using Nano-reinforced Solder Paste
Abstract
Electronic components used in electronic gadgets are becoming increasingly thin, tiny, and miniature. The assembly of miniaturized components requires an enhanced joining technique and reliable soldering material for the tiny solder junction. However, sophisticated assembly procedures for tiny components using nano-reinforced solder paste on real surface mount devices continue to be a significant research gap. Thus, the purpose of this work is to evaluate the advanced joining of ultra-fine packages utilizing nano-reinforced solder paste following reflow soldering. TiO2, Fe2O3, and NiO nanoparticles (with 0.01 wt.%, 0.05 wt.%, and 0.15 wt.%) were chosen to reinforce lead-free solder paste (SAC 305 type 5) to create three samples with varying nanoparticle types. The samples were then assembled using a reflow soldering process. The performance nano-reinforced solder paste was compared to a pure SAC305 solder paste in terms of material and mechanical properties. Various experimental techniques were used to characterize the microstructure, fillet height, and hardness. The experimental results show that the presence of nanoparticles improves the material and structural integrity of the ultra-fine solder joint in general. By adding 0.15 wt percent TiO2, Fe2O3, and NiO, the average hardness of SAC305 increased by 77%, 86%, and 67%, respectively. It also improves the fillet height above 90 µm for TiO2, Fe2O3, and NiO, which meet the international IPC standards for reliability. This research gives engineers a detail insight on the performance of the nano-reinforced solder joint for a miniaturized package in the microelectronics industry. The findings are expected to provide a proper guideline and reference for the manufacture of miniaturized electronic packages. The findings are expected to serve as an appropriate reference and guidance for the manufacturing of compact electronic packages.
F. C. Ani, A. A. Saad, A. Jalar, C. Y. Khor, M. A. Abas, Z. Bachok
Properties of Sn0.7Cu Solder Alloys Bearing Fe and Bi
Abstract
In this chapter, the effects of the addition of Fe and Bi on the mechanical properties, microstructures, electrical properties, corrosion, and oxidation behavior of Sn–0.7Cu (SC07) lead-free solder alloy are presented. The addition of Fe and Bi to the SC07 alloy leads to significant changes in the microstructure and chemical state of tin. The minor addition of Fe to binary SC07 alloys leads to the formation of an intermetallic FeSn2 compound with high resistivity. The addition of Bi forms a substitutional solid solution with Sn in the primary ß-Sn dendrites of the alloy. Fe improves and stabilizes the mechanical properties and drop resistance, while Bi strengthens the alloy by solid solution effect, lowers the melting temperature, and improves the wetting properties. The addition of Bi increases the yield strength and fracture toughness while decreasing the overall elongation. A smoother morphology of the SC07 alloy was observed, which favors the formation of a passive layer, providing higher resistance to iv corrosion. High resistance and low capacitance values of SC07 lead-free solder alloy were observed, indicating the formation of a compact and adherent passive layer on the surface of the alloys. Thus, the electrical properties and oxidation and corrosion behavior of the modified solder alloys are better than Sn–Pb and the commercial SAC solder alloys.
Mohd Faizul Mohd Sabri, Mohd Faiz Mohd Salleh, Syed Hassan Abbas Jaffery, Mohammad Hossein Mahdavifard

Processing and Performances

Frontmatter
The Effect of Isothermal Ageing Treatment on Different PCB Surface Finishes: Simulation and Experimental
Abstract
This research was conducted to investigate the effect of isothermal ageing treatment on different PCB surface finishes via simulation and experimental. The surface finishes selected in this study are electroless nickel immersion gold (ENIG) and hot air solder levelling (HASL). The Pb-free solder ball used is SAC-x Ni (x = 0.5 wt.% and x = 1.0 wt.%) with a diameter of 500 µm. All the samples were subjected to the isothermal ageing process. The intermetallic compounds (IMCs) formation and growth at tin-silver-copper-nickel/hot air solder levelling (SACN/HASL) and tin-silver-copper-nickel/electroless nickel immersion gold (SACN/ENIG) at the 230 °C reflows was investigated. The characterisation of IMCs after the isothermal ageing is also being analysed in terms of type and size. The thermal distribution had come out with the analysis of steady-state thermal and transient thermal from simulation analysis. These two analyses successfully simulate the thermal distribution on the PCB package. The total deformation and equivalent stress of the PCB package were yet to be determined. It can be observed that the equivalent stress decreased when the isothermal ageing duration was getting longer. The experimental result revealed that single scallop-shape morphology of IMC formed has been detected at the interface, known as (Cu, Ni)6Sn5 for both nickel percentages after reflow soldering. Meanwhile, duplex IMC was seen after being exposed to isothermal ageing. There is no Ni element detected in IMC composition due to no availability of Ni layer on HASL surface finish. During the ageing treatment, the intermetallic thickness was proportional to the ageing duration time and nickel percentages. In addition, the ENIG finish also shows thinner IMC thickness compared to HASL after isothermal ageing treatment. Therefore, it can be concluded that SACN30505/ENIG has lower growth kinetic rate compared to SACN30510/HASL.
F. Muhamad Razizy, N. Zhen Zhang, M. S. Hashim, O. Saliza Azlina, O. Shahrul Azmir
Flux Modification for Wettability and Reliability Improvement in Solder Joints
Abstract
Flux is essential in the soldering process. Regardless of the solder materials, soldering process types, and classifications, fluxes are essential for determining solder joints’ reliability and properties. The type of solder materials is clearly defined in the solder materials specifications; however, for fluxes, the specific ingredients remain secret and are protected by industrial practices. Usually, a general description and classification of active ingredients are disclosed to the user. Thus, the reliability of soldering processes and solder joints very much depends on the undisclosed secret information of fluxes. Similar active ingredients but with different functional groups have been reported to significantly affect solder joints’ wettability and mechanical properties for the same solder paste formulation in terms of chemical compounds of solder alloy, soldering process, size distribution, and significant flux group.
N. Ismail, A. Jalar, M. A. Bakar, A. Atiqah
Advancement of Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Surface Finishes in Controlling the Intermetallic Compound (IMC) Growth in Solder Joints
Abstract
Printed circuit board (PCB) is widely used in electronic packaging and plays a role in supporting the electronic components by providing electrical connections for the circuit’s functionality. Various types of surface finishes are often applied onto the Cu pad of the PCB to protect the Cu pad prior to the soldering process. Furthermore, the application of surface finishes is to ensure good solderability. An intermetallic compound (IMC) layer formed between the PCB pad and solder materials during the soldering process. The IMC layer becomes a concern in the electronic industry as higher growth of the IMC layer could affect the solder joint reliability. Thus, controlling the IMC layer growth becomes one of the interest points. The modification of the PCB surface by introducing a few types of surface finishes significantly affected the controlling the IMC layer growth.
A. Atiqah, A. Jalar, M. A. Bakar, N. Ismail
Significance of Intermetallic Compound (IMC) Layer to the Reliability of a Solder Joint, Methods of IMC Layer Thickness Measurements
Abstract
Intermetallic compound (IMC) growth is being analyzed due to its significant effect on solder joint reliability. It appears that from various works conducted whereby the excessive growth of IMC could lead to solder joint failure. Thus, many attempts have been made to determine the actual IMC thickness. Average values of IMC thickness are always used to represent the IMC layer. However, precise, and true representation of the IMC layer growth in the actual 3D phenomenon from 2D images remains unclear. Leading to this, the stereometry should be considered in determining the actual IMC thickness layer. The accuracy of the IMC layer thickness measurement is important as the IMC layer thickness values will be used for the next analysis such as for growth rate and activation energy calculation. Type of measurement to represent the actual IMC layer thickness based on 2D observation and nature of the IMC structure which contains hillocks and valleys is suggested.
M. A. Bakar, A. Jalar, A. Atiqah, N. Ismail
The Effect of Laser Soldering onto Intermetallic Compound Formation, Growth
Abstract
Recently, the laser soldering method has been introduced among electronic manufacturers because of its superior properties such as non-contact and localised heating, quick rise and drop in temperature, and ease of automation compared to reflow soldering. This paper discusses the effect of laser soldering parameters on intermetallic compound formation and growth between lead-free solder alloy and copper substrate. The analysis was conducted for the type of laser used for heat-sensitive components and characteristics of the laser soldering process, which could promote or inhibit excessive growth of intermetallic compound formation.
Siti Rabiatull Aisha Idris, Nabila Tamar Jaya, Muhammad Asyraf Abdullah
Reliability Analysis on the Flexible Printed Circuit Board After Reflow Soldering
Abstract
Flexible printed circuit boards (FPCB) offer several advantages; however, certain limitations, such as inadequate reflow profile, cause reliability issues in the manufacturing assembly process. This chapter details a reliability study to verify the solder joint bonding capability between the FPCB and BGA packages to withstand the pulling out load. The results revealed that the fracture mode on the FPCB occurred between the interface of the copper pad and solder joints. An increase in Ag content in the solder joints slightly improves the shear strength. Overall, the newly developed approach significantly decreased the solder joint defects and enhanced solutions to producing Pb-free solders with reduced reliability issues in the electronics manufacturing industry.
Muhammad Iqbal Ahmad, Mohd Sharizal Abdul Aziz, C. Y. Khor
Solder Paste’s Rheology Data for Stencil Printing Numerical Investigations
Abstract
The stage that prompts major concern compared to other stages in Surface Mount Technology (SMT) is known as the stencil printing stage. The study of prestencil printing was conducted by using simulation software to minimise the fabrication cost and time. Material properties are compulsory to be integrated within the simulation model to ensure the simulation performed to be able to replicate the experimental or actual work successfully. One of the important material properties is rheology data of solder paste. The rheology data is important to verify that the simulations can predict flowability of the solder paste. Because of its viscosity being shear rate dependent, solder paste is classified as non-Newtonian fluid. To measure viscosity, rotary rheometer is employed as it is the most commonly used device. Spindle design for measuring viscosity consist of two option, parallel plate and cone plate design. The distance between two parallel plates can be manipulated accordingly which affects the usage of parallel plate design. Only the top spindle can be modified to adjust the angle of the top plate when using a cone plate design. The specific spindle type selected depends on the spindle itself. The use of viscosity simulation model to compare the experimental work with the results of spindle selection is one of the selection methods. Therefore, this chapter focuses on the rheology data and how the rheology data can be gathered from the experiments performed and applied in the simulation model.
M. S. Rusdi, M. Z. Abdullah, Mohd Sharizal Abdul Aziz, S. A. H. A. Seman, M. H. Hassan
Tin Whiskers Growth in Electronic Assemblies
Abstract
Tin whisker growth has become a critical reliability issue in electronic assemblies. It is an electrically conductive single crystal growing unexpectedly even at room temperature. Moreover, its growing length can be long enough to join with neighboring conductors, subsequently causing short to the adjacent circuit. This chapter includes most of the main subtopics, including the mechanism, standards of measurements, etc. Generally, the whisker growth is induced by the relaxation of the compressive stress in the tin layer. Besides, the driving force for whisker growth increases with the temperature (<150 °C). Yet, annealing at 150 °C could reduce the whisker growth because grain coarsening reduces the inner compressive stress.
M. S. Chang, Mohd Arif Anuar Mohd Salleh, D. S. C. Halin, N. Z. Mohd Mokhtar
Metadaten
Titel
Recent Progress in Lead-Free Solder Technology
herausgegeben von
Assoc. Prof. Mohd Arif Anuar Mohd Salleh
Dr. Mohd Sharizal Abdul Aziz
Prof. Dr. Azman Jalar
Dr. Mohd Izrul Izwan Ramli
Copyright-Jahr
2022
Electronic ISBN
978-3-030-93441-5
Print ISBN
978-3-030-93440-8
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93441-5

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