Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Air Pollution and Covid-19

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Labor, Human Resources and Population Economics

Abstract

Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, a large number of studies have investigated the relationship between COVID-19 outcomes and the environment. In particular, this literature focuses on two main research questions: i) What is the impact of air quality on COVID-19 infections and deaths, if any? ii) what is the effect of the lockdown measures on air quality, and therefore on COVID-19 outcomes, if any? This chapter reviews the academic literature that tries to answer these questions. It documents a number of studies conducted in different places and periods finding statistically significant associations between quality of air and COVID-19 infections, and COVID-19 adverse outcomes. Methodologically, some of these studies also have plausible identification strategies to test causality links between the two variables, and their results suggest that air pollution may have a long-term and a short-term effect on COVID-19 outcomes. The chapter also reviews methodological challenges in this literature and discusses how policy-makers might benefit from the evidence gathered so far. Moreover, it documents that lockdown measures significantly affect quality of air, even though it remains unclear whether this effect contributed to slowing down the spread of the virus.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abadie A, Diamond A, Hainmueller J (2010) Synthetic control methods for comparative case studies: estimating the effect of California’s tobacco control program. J Am Stat Assoc 105(490):493–505

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alfano V, Ercolano S (2020) The efficacy of lockdown against COVID-19: a cross-country panel analysis. Appl Health Econ Health Policy 18:509–517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alfano V, Ercolano S (2022) Stay at home! Governance quality and effectiveness of lockdown. Soc Indic Res 159:1–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson ML (2020) As the wind blows: The effects of long-term exposure to air pollution on mortality. Journal of the European Economic Association 18(4):1886–1927

    Google Scholar 

  • Aron J, Muellbauer J (2022) Excess mortality versus COVID-19 death rates: a spatial analysis of socioeconomic disparities and political allegiance across US states. Rev Income Wealth 68(2):348–392

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin W, Carattini S, Mahecha JG, Pesko M (2020) COVID-19 Mortality and Contemporaneous Air Pollution. CESifo Working Paper No. 8609, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3711885. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3711885

  • Aviv-Sharon E, Aharoni A (2020) Generalized logistic growth modeling of the COVID-19 pandemic in Asia. Infect Dis Model 5:502–509

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldasano JM (2020) COVID-19 lockdown effects on air quality by NO2 in the cities of Barcelona and Madrid (Spain). Sci Total Environ 741:140353

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bao R, Zhang A (2020) Does lockdown reduce air pollution? Evidence from 44 cities in northern China. Sci Total Environ 731:139052

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barakat T, Muylkens B, Su BL (2020) Is particulate matter of air pollution a vector of Covid-19 pandemic? Matter 3(4):977–980

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basellini U, Alburez-Gutierrez D, Del Fava E, Perrotta D, Bonetti M, Camarda CG, Zagheni E (2021) Linking excess mortality to mobility data during the first wave of COVID-19 in England and Wales. SSM-Popul Health 14:100799

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becchetti L, Beccari G, Conzo G, Conzo P, De Santis D, Salustri F (2021) Air quality and COVID-19 adverse outcomes: divergent views and experimental findings. Environ Res 193:110556

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becchetti L, Conzo G, Conzo P, Salustri F (2022a) Understanding the heterogeneity of COVID-19 deaths and contagions: the role of air pollution and lockdown decisions. J Environ Manag 305:114316

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becchetti L, Beccari G, Conzo G, Conzo P, De Santis D, Salustri F (2022b) Particulate matter and COVID-19 excess deaths: decomposing long-term exposure and short-term effects. Ecol Econ 194:107340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belosi F, Conte M, Gianelle V, Santachiara G, Contini D (2021) On the concentration of SARS-CoV-2 in outdoor air and the interaction with pre-existing atmospheric particles. Environ Res 193:110603

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bontempi E (2020) First data analysis about possible COVID-19 virus airborne diffusion due to air particulate matter (PM): the case of Lombardy (Italy). Environ Res 186:109639

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brauer F (2008) Compartmental models in epidemiology. In: Mathematical epidemiology. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, pp 19–79

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Briz-Redón Á, Belenguer-Sapiña C, Serrano-Aroca Á (2021) Changes in air pollution during COVID-19 lockdown in Spain: a multi-city study. J Environ Sci 101:16–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bürger R, Chowell G, Lara-Díaz LY (2021) Measuring differences between phenomenological growth models applied to epidemiology. Math Biosci 334:108558

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cakmak S, Hebbern C, Pinault L, Lavigne E, Vanos J, Crouse DL, Tjepkema M (2018) Associations between long-term PM2. 5 and ozone exposure and mortality in the Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort (CANCHEC), by spatial synoptic classification zone. Environment International 111:200–211

    Google Scholar 

  • Cartenì A, Di Francesco L, Martino M (2020) How mobility habits influenced the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic: Results from the Italian case study. Science of the Total Environment 741:140489

    Google Scholar 

  • Chirizzi D, Conte M, Feltracco M, Dinoi A, Gregoris E, Barbaro E, La Bella G, Ciccarese G, La Salandra G, Gambaro A, Contini D (2021) SARS-CoV-2 concentrations and virus-laden aerosol size distributions in outdoor air in north and south of Italy. Environ Int 146:106255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ciccarelli C, Elhorst JP (2016) A Spatial Diffusion Model with Common Factors and an Application to Cigarette Consumption. CEIS Working Paper No. 381, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2787095. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2787095

  • Ciencewicki J, Jaspers I (2007) Air pollution and respiratory viral infection. Inhalation Toxicology 19(14):1135–1146

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark LP, Millet DB, Marshall JD (2014) National patterns in environmental injustice and inequality: outdoor NO2 air pollution in the United States. PLoS One 9(4):e94431

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen AJ, Brauer M, Burnett R et al (2017) Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases study 2015. Lancet 389:1907–1918

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coker ES, Cavalli L, Fabrizi E, Guastella G, Lippo E, Parisi ML, … Vergalli S (2020) The effects of air pollution on COVID-19 related mortality in northern Italy. Environmental and Resource Economics 76(4):611–634

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole MA, Ozgen C, Strobl E (2020) Air pollution exposure and Covid-19 in Dutch municipalities. Environ Resour Econ 76(4):581–610

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Comunian S, Dongo D, Milani C, Palestini P (2020) Air pollution and COVID-19: the role of particulate matter in the spread and increase of COVID-19’s morbidity and mortality. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(12):4487

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Court of Justice of the European Union (2020) PRESS RELEASE No 136/2020, Luxembourg, 10 November 2020. https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2020-11/cp200136en.pdf

  • Cui Y, Zhang ZF, Froines J, Zhao J, Wang H, Yu SZ, Detels R (2003) Air pollution and case fatality of SARS in the People’s Republic of China: an ecologic study. Environ Health 2(1):1–5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delnevo G, Mirri S, Roccetti M (2020) Particulate matter and COVID-19 disease diffusion in Emilia-Romagna (Italy). Already a cold case?. Computation 8(2):59

    Google Scholar 

  • Dominici F, Peng RD, Bell ML, Pham L, McDermott A, Zeger SL, Samet JM (2006) Fine particulate air pollution and hospital admission for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. JAMA 295(10):1127–1134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EEA – European Environment Agency (2018) Air quality in Europe – 2018 report. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg

    Google Scholar 

  • Faridi S, Niazi S, Sadeghi K, Naddafi K, Yavarian J, Shamsipour M, Jandaghi NZS, Sadeghniiat K, Nabizadeh R, Yunesian M, Momeniha F (2020) A field indoor air measurement of SARS-CoV-2 in the patient rooms of the largest hospital in Iran. Sci Total Environ 725:138401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fattorini D, Regoli F (2020) Role of the chronic air pollution levels in the Covid-19 outbreak risk in Italy. Environ Pollut 264:114732

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faustini A, Stafoggia M, Berti G, Bisanti L, Chiusolo M, Cernigliaro A, … Forastiere F (2011) The relationship between ambient particulate matter and respiratory mortality: a multi-city study in Italy. European Respiratory Journal 38(3):538–547

    Google Scholar 

  • Granella F, Reis LA, Bosetti V, Tavoni M (2021) COVID-19 lockdown only partially alleviates health impacts of air pollution in Northern Italy. Environ Res Lett 16(3):035012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hajat A, Hsia C, O’Neill MS (2015) Socioeconomic disparities and air pollution exposure: a global review. Curr Environ Health Rep 2(4):440–450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Higham JE, Ramírez CA, Green MA, Morse AP (2021) UK COVID-19 lockdown: 100 days of air pollution reduction? Air Qual Atmos Health 14(3):325–332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IEA – International Energy Agency (2021) Heat pumps. IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/reports/heat-pumps

    Google Scholar 

  • Isphording IE, Pestel N (2021) Pandemic meets pollution: poor air quality increases deaths by COVID-19. J Environ Econ Manag 108:102448

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johanna N, Citrawijaya H, Wangge G (2020) Mass screening vs lockdown vs combination of both to control COVID-19: a systematic review. J Public Health Res 9(4):2011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kapitsinis N (2021) The underlying factors of excess mortality in 2020: a cross-country analysis of pre-pandemic healthcare conditions and strategies to cope with Covid-19. BMC Health Serv Res 21(1):1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim SE, Lim YH, Kim H (2015) Temperature modifies the association between particulate air pollution and mortality: a multi-city study in South Korea. Science of the Total Environment 524:376–383

    Google Scholar 

  • Konstantinoudis G, Cameletti M, Gómez-Rubio V, Gómez IL, Pirani M, Baio G, … Blangiardo M (2021) Regional excess mortality during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic: a study of five European countries. medRxiv

    Google Scholar 

  • Kucharski AJ, Russell TW, Diamond C, Liu Y, Edmunds J, Funk S, … Flasche S (2020) Early dynamics of transmission and control of COVID-19: a mathematical modelling study. Lancet Infect Dis 20(5):553–558

    Google Scholar 

  • Li N, Xia T, Nel AE (2008) The role of oxidative stress in ambient particulate matter-induced lung diseases and its implications in the toxicity of engineered nanoparticles. Free Radic Biol Med 44(9):1689–1699

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magazzino C, Mele M, Schneider N (2020) The relationship between air pollution and COVID-19-related deaths: an application to three French cities. Applied Energy 279:115835

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahato S, Pal S, Ghosh KG (2020) Effect of lockdown amid COVID-19 pandemic on air quality of the megacity Delhi, India. Sci Total Environ 730:139086

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDuffie EE, Martin RV, Spadaro JV, Burnett R, Smith SJ, O’Rourke P, … Brauer M (2021) Source sector and fuel contributions to ambient PM2. 5 and attributable mortality across multiple spatial scales. Nat Commun 12(1):1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuinn LA, Ward-Caviness C, Neas LM, Schneider A, Di Q, Chudnovsky A, … Devlin RB (2017) Fine particulate matter and cardiovascular disease: comparison of assessment methods for long-term exposure. Environmental Research 159:16–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray CJ, Aravkin AY, Zheng P, Abbafati C, Abbas KM, Abbasi-Kangevari M, Abd-Allah F, Abdelalim A, Abdollahi M, Abdollahpour I, Abegaz KH (2020) Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 396(10258):1223–1249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nor NSM, Yip CW, Ibrahim N, Jaafar MH, Rashid ZZ, Mustafa N, Abd Hamid HH, Chandru K, Latif MT, Saw PE, Lin CY (2021) Particulate matter (PM 2.5) as a potential SARS-CoV-2 carrier. Sci Rep 11(1):1–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OECD (2016) The economic consequences of outdoor air pollution. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264257474-en

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ogen Y (2020) Assessing nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels as a contributing factor to coronavirus (COVID-19) fatality. Science of the Total Environment 726:138605

    Google Scholar 

  • Padhi A, Pradhan S, Sahoo PP, Suresh K, Behera BK, Panigrahi PK (2020) Studying the effect of lockdown using epidemiological modelling of COVID-19 and a quantum computational approach using the Ising spin interaction. Sci Rep 10(1):1–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pansini R, Fornacca D (2020) Initial evidence of higher morbidity and mortality due to SARS-CoV-2 in regions with lower air quality. MedRxiv

    Google Scholar 

  • Pesaran MH, Smith R (1995) Estimating long-run relationships from dynamic heterogeneous panels. Journal of Econometrics 68(1):79–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelucchi C, Negri E, Gallus S, Boffetta P, Tramacere I, La Vecchia C (2009) Long-term particulate matter exposure and mortality: a review of European epidemiological studies. BMC Public Health 9(1):1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Peng RD, Chang HH, Bell ML, McDermott A, Zeger SL, Samet JM, Dominici F (2008) Coarse particulate matter air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases among Medicare patients. JAMA 299(18):2172–2179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perone G (2021) The determinants of COVID-19 case fatality rate (CFR) in the Italian regions and provinces: An analysis of environmental, demographic, and healthcare factors. Science of the Total Environment 755:142523

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinault LL, Weichenthal S, Crouse DL, Brauer M, Erickson A, van Donkelaar A, … Burnett RT (2017) Associations between fine particulate matter and mortality in the 2001 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort. Environmental Research 159:406–415

    Google Scholar 

  • Pivato A, Amoruso I, Formenton G, Di Maria F, Bonato T, Vanin S, Marion A, Baldovin T (2021) Evaluating the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the particulate matters during the peak of COVID-19 in Padua, northern Italy. Sci Total Environ 784:147129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poirier C, Luo W, Majumder MS, Liu D, Mandl KD, Mooring TA, Santillana M (2020) The role of environmental factors on transmission rates of the COVID-19 outbreak: an initial assessment in two spatial scales. Sci Rep 10(1):1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pope CA III, Dockery DW (2006) Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 56(6):709–742

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santus P, Russo A, Madonini E, Allegra L, Blasi F, Centanni S, … Amaducci S (2012) How air pollution influences clinical management of respiratory diseases. A case-crossover study in Milan. Respir Res 13(1):1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Setti L, Passarini F, De Gennaro G, Di Gilio A, Palmisani J, Buono P, … Miani A (2020) Position Paper Relazione circa l’effetto dell’inquinamento da particolato atmosferico e la diffusione di virus nella popolazione. SIMA-Società Italiana di Medicina Ambientale 1–5

    Google Scholar 

  • Sicard P, De Marco A, Agathokleous E, Feng Z, Xu X, Paoletti E, Rodriguez JJD, Calatayud V (2020) Amplified ozone pollution in cities during the COVID-19 lockdown. Sci Total Environ 735:139542

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sul D (2019) Panel Data Econometrics: Common Factor Analysis for Empirical Researchers (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429423765

  • Sulaymon ID, Zhang Y, Hopke PK, Zhang Y, Hua J, Mei X (2021) COVID-19 pandemic in Wuhan: ambient air quality and the relationships between criteria air pollutants and meteorological variables before, during, and after lockdown. Atmos Res 250:105362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tamagawa E, Bai N, Morimoto K, Gray C, Mui T, Yatera K, Zhang X, Xing L, Li Y, Laher I, Sin DD (2008) Particulate matter exposure induces persistent lung inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. Am J Phys Lung Cell Mol Phys 295(1):L79–L85

    Google Scholar 

  • Travaglio M, Yu Y, Popovic R, Selley L, Leal NS, Martins LM (2021) Links between air pollution and COVID-19 in England. Environ Pollut 268:115859

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Upadhyay D, Panduri V, Ghio A, Kamp DW (2003) Particulate matter induces alveolar epithelial cell DNA damage and apoptosis: role of free radicals and the mitochondria. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 29(2):180–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venter ZS, Aunan K, Chowdhury S, Lelieveld J (2020) COVID-19 lockdowns cause global air pollution declines. Proc Natl Acad Sci 117(32):18984–18990

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO COVID-19 Dashboard (2020) World Health Organization, Geneva. Available online: https://covid19.who.int/. Last access 24 Jan 2022

  • Wu K, Darcet D, Wang Q, Sornette D (2020) Generalized logistic growth modeling of the COVID-19 outbreak: comparing the dynamics in the 29 provinces in China and in the rest of the world. Nonlinear Dynamics 101(3):1561–1581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yao Y, Pan J, Liu Z, Meng X, Wang W, Kan H, Wang W (2020) Temporal association between particulate matter pollution and case fatality rate of COVID-19 in Wuhan. Environ Res 189:109941

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin P, Chen R, Wang L, Meng X, Liu C, Niu Y, … Kan H (2017) Ambient ozone pollution and daily mortality: a nationwide study in 272 Chinese cities. Environmental Health Perspectives 125(11):117006

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, He M, Wu S, Zhu Y, Wang S, Shima M, … Ma L (2015) Short-term effects of fine particulate matter and temperature on lung function among healthy college students in Wuhan, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12(7):7777–7793

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang X, Chen X, Zhang X (2018) The impact of exposure to air pollution on cognitive performance. Proc Natl Acad Sci 115(37):9193–9197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu Y, Jingui X, Fengming H, Liqing C (2020) Association between short-term exposure to air pollution and COVID-19 infection: Evidence from China. Science of the Total Environment 727:138704

    Google Scholar 

  • Zoran MA, Savastru RS, Savastru DM, Tautan MN (2020) Assessing the relationship between surface levels of PM2. 5 and PM10 particulate matter impact on COVID-19 in Milan, Italy. Science of the Total Environment 738:139825

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

Responsible Section Editor: Sergio Scicchitano.

The chapter has benefitted from valuable comments of the editor, anonymous referees, and precious comments from Gianluigi Conzo, Pierluigi Conzo, Gabriele Beccari, Davide de Santis, Tommaso Luzzati, Jeffrey Sachs, and Phoebe Koundouri. There is no conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy

    Leonardo Becchetti

  2. University College London, London, UK

    Tom Palmer

  3. Roma Tre University & University College London, Rome, Italy

    Francesco Salustri

Authors
  1. Leonardo Becchetti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tom Palmer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Francesco Salustri
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Leonardo Becchetti .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. UNU-MERIT & Princeton University, Maastricht, The Netherlands

    Klaus F. Zimmermann

Section Editor information

  1. Department of Labour Market and Social Policies, National Institute for Public Policies Analysis (INAPP), Rome, Italy

    Sergio Scicchitano Ph.D

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Becchetti, L., Palmer, T., Salustri, F. (2022). Air Pollution and Covid-19. In: Zimmermann, K.F. (eds) Handbook of Labor, Human Resources and Population Economics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_363-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_363-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-57365-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-57365-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Economics and FinanceReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation