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2018 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

Religion and the Uyghurs: A Contemporary Overview

verfasst von : Colin Mackerras

Erschienen in: The Uyghur Community

Verlag: Palgrave Macmillan US

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Abstract

In 2010, there were approximately 9 million Uyghur Muslims. Islam has strengthened in Xinjiang since the 1980s, with devotion greater in the south than the north, and become interrelated with the growth of Uyghur ethnic consciousness. Chinese law declares religious freedom, but there are many restrictions, including bans on children under 18 entering mosques, and various religious clothing such as the burqah in public places in Ürümqi. Although Uyghur Muslims overwhelmingly abhor terrorism, authorities frequently blame the growth of separatist movements partly on Islam. Serious ethnic rioting in Ürümqi in July 2009 led on to worsening Uyghur-Han relations and terrorist incidents. Terrorism and strained ethnic relations appear to be long-term problems, but an independent Xinjiang is unlikely. Islam will survive indefinitely.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Factors and Challenges of Uyghur Nationalism in the Early Twentieth Century

Nächstes Kapitel Constructing the Uyghur Diaspora: Identity Politics and the Transnational Uyghur Community

See especially I. Bellér-Hann, ‘“Making the Oil Fragrant”: Dealings with the Supernatural among the Uyghurs in Xinjiang,’ Asian Ethnicity, vol. 2, no. 1 (March 2001), pp. 9–23.

For a major full-length study of Xinjiang politics at this period, see Donald H. McMillen, Chinese Communist Power and Policy in Xinjiang, 1949–1977 (Boulder: Westview, 1979). In PRC English-language publications, the official spelling of the ethnic group called Weiwuerzu 维吾尔族 in Chinese is Uygur, which is why the formal name of the Autonomous Region follows the spelling Uygur. In this book, however, the editorial policy spells the ethnic group Uyghur, which is actually much more typical of English-language publications not published in China.

James A. Millward and Nabijan Tursun, ‘Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884–1978,’ in S. Frederick Starr, ed., Xinjiang China’s Muslim Borderland (Armonk and London: M.E. Sharpe, 2004), p. 89.

For some discussion of this matter, see Colin Mackerras, China’s Minority Cultures, Identities and Integration Since 1912 (Melbourne: Longman Australia, New York: St Martin’s Press, 1995), especially the conclusion, pp. 207–21. An excellent book dealing extensively with the Uyghurs of the twenty-first century, including attitudes toward being part of China, is Gardner Bovingdon, The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010). There is a collection of a few relevant articles regarding Xinjiang in Colin Mackerras, ed., Ethnic Minorities in Modern China, Critical Concepts in Asian Studies (London and New York: Routledge, 2011), vol. IV, in Part 7.2 (“Xinjiang”) of the section entitled “China’s minorities: separatism; implications for international relations.”

Dru C. Gladney, Muslim Chinese, Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, and Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 6–7, 62–3.

The term comes from a Harvard paper never published in its original English but translated into French and published under the title ‘Les “voies” (turuq) soufies en Chine’ (‘The Sufi Orders (turuq) in China’, in A. Popovic and G. Veinstein, eds, Les orders mystiques dans l’Islam (The Mystical Orders in Islam) (Paris: Édition de l’École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales 1986), pp. 13–26.

Raphael Israeli, Islam in China, Religion, Ethnicity, Culture and Politics (Lexington Books, Lanham, 2002), p. 261.

Israeli, Islam in China, p. 276.

Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, ‘Fifty Years of Progress in China’s Human Rights’, Beijing Review, vol. 43, no. 9 (28 February 2000), pp. 48–9. A 1990 figure says there were 17,000 mosques and 43,000 other places of religious activity, probably referring to officially registered shrines and madrasas. Wang Wenheng, Xinjiang zongjiao wenti yanjiu (Studies on Religion in Xinjiang) (Ürümqi: Xinjiang People’s Press, 1993), pp. 93–5.

Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, ‘Development and Progress in Xinjiang, VI. Protecting Citizens’ Rights of Freedom of Religious Belief’, 21 September 2009, at http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/ethnic/2009-09/21/content_8717461.htm

Michael Dillon, China’s Muslim Hui Community, Migration, Settlement and Sects (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1999), p. 182.

Edmund Waite, ‘The Emergence of Muslim Reformism in Contemporary Xinjiang: Implications for the Uyghurs’ Positioning Between a Central Asian and Chinese Context’, in Ildikó Bellér-Hann, M. Cristina Cesàro, Rachel Harris and Joanne Smith Finley, eds, Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia (Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2007), p. 166.

For discussion of education and status of women in Islam in Xinjiang, see Maria Jaschok and Vicky Hau Ming Chan, ‘Education, Gender and Islam in China: The Place of Religious Education in Challenging and Sustaining “Undisputed Traditions” Among Chinese Muslim Women’, International Journal of Educational Development, vol. 29, no. 5 (September 2009), pp. 489–91.

Waite, ‘The Emergence of Muslim Reformism in Contemporary Xinjiang’, p. 172.

Bellér-Hann, ‘“Making the Oil Fragrant”’, p. 9.

Waite, ‘The Emergence of Muslim Reformism in Contemporary Xinjiang’, p. 173.

Allessandra Cappelletti, ‘Developing the Land and the People: Social Development Issues in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (1999–2009)’, East Asia, no. 32 (June 2015), pp. 152–3.

See the discussion in Cappelletti, ‘Developing the Land and the People’, pp. 151–2.

For example, see Abduresit Qarluq and Anna Hayes, ‘Securitising HIV/AIDS in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region’, in Australian Journal of International Affairs, vol. 65, no. 2 (March 2011), pp. 203–19.

Cappelletti, ‘Developing the Land and the People’, p. 150.

Human Rights in China, ‘Devastating Blows, Religious Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang’, Human Rights Watch, vol. 17, no. 2(C) (April 2005), p. 58.

Cappelletti, ‘Developing the Land and the People’, p. 155.

Graham E. Fuller and Jonathan N. Lipman, ‘Islam in Xinjiang’, in Starr, ed., Xinjiang China’s Muslim Borderland, p. 324.

Human Rights in China, ‘Devastating Blows’, p. 5.

Rachel Harris, ‘Harmonizing Islam in Xinjiang: Sound and Meaning in Rural Uyghur Religious Practice’, in Trine Brox and Idikó Bellér-Hann, eds., On the Fringes of the Harmonious Society, Tibetans and Uyghurs in Socialist China (Copenhagen: NIAS Press, 2014), p. 294.

See Zhou Chongjing, et al., eds., Zhongguo renkou, Xinjiang fence (China’s Population, Xinjiang Volume), (Beijing: Chinese Political Economy Press, 1990), p. 283.

See Stanley W. Toops, ‘The Demography of Xinjiang’, in Starr, ed., Xinjiang China’s Muslim Borderland, pp. 245–7.

See Yuan Xin, ‘Renkou qianyi yu liudong’ (‘Migration and Floating Population’, in Qiu Yuanyao, Yilifan Abudureyimu, Zheng Bingrui, Yuan Xin et al., eds, Kua shiji de Zhongguo renkou, Xinjiang juan (China’s Population at the Turn of the Century, Xinjiang Volume) (Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1994), p. 275.

One specialist used the term “Sino-Muslim” to refer to these people, except for the PRC period. See Jonathan N. Lipman, Familiar Strangers, A History of Muslims in Northwest China (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1997), p. xxiv. He argued that the term “combines Chinese linguistic and material culture and Islamic religion,” without lumping them together with other ethnic groups.

See Joanne Smith, ‘“Making Culture Matter”: Symbolic, Spatial and Social Boundaries Between Uyghurs and Han Chinese’, Asian Ethnicity, vol. 3, no. 2 (September 2002), p. 173. This article is one of quite a number of studies carried out on Uyghur–Han relations in Xinjiang since the 1990s.

Herbert S. Yee, ‘Ethnic Consciousness and Identity: A Research Report on Uygur–Han relations in Xinjiang’, Asian Ethnicity, vol. 6, no. 1 (February 2005), pp. 35–50, especially p. 50. This article is very unusual in being based on surveys, which are very difficult to undertake in contemporary Xinjiang, mainly for political reasons, as the author admits (pp. 35–6).

Blaine Kaltman, Under the Heel of the Dragon, Islam, Racism, Crime, and the Uighur in China (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2007), p. 128.

Nick Holdstock, The Tree that Bleeds, A Uighur Town on the Edge (Edinburgh: Luath Press, 2011), p. 348.

Smith, ‘“Making Culture Matter”’, p. 172.

Herbert S. Yee, ‘Ethnic Relations in Xinjiang: A Survey of Uygur-Han Relations in Urumqi’, Journal of Contemporary China, vol. 12, no. 36 (August 2003), p. 437.

Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, ‘Development and Progress in Xinjiang, V. Upholding Ethnic Equality and Unity’, 21 September 2009, at http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/ethnic/2009-09/21/content_8717461.htm

Smith, ‘“Making Culture Matter”’, p. 172.

Smith, ‘“Making Culture Matter”’, pp. 170–1.

Yee, ‘Ethnic Consciousness and Identity’, p. 40.

See the comments of Justin Rudelson and William Jankowiak, ‘Acculturation and Resistance, Xinjiang Identities in Flux’, in Starr, ed., Xinjiang China’s Muslim Borderland, pp. 311–13.

Elizabeth Van Wie Davis, Ruling, Resources and Religion in China, Managing the Multiethnic State in the 21st Century (Houndmills, Baskingstoke, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), p. 100.

See also Colin Mackerras, ‘Ethnicity in China: The case of Xinjiang’, Harvard Asia Quarterly, vol. 7, no. 1 (Winter 2004), pp. 11–12.

Michael Winchester, ‘Beijing vs. Islam’, Asiaweek, vol. 23, no. 42 (24 October 1997), p. 31.

Human Rights in China, ‘Devastating Blows’, p. 14.

Rudelson and Jankowiak, ‘Acculturation and Resistance’, p. 318.

See Nicolas Becquelin, ‘Xinjiang in the Nineties’, The China Journal, no. 44 (July 2000), p. 87.

Xinjiang Daily, May 7, 1996, as quoted by Reuter News Service on May 12, 1996. On May 10 and 14, the same newspaper claimed that, among Xinjiang’s village-level organisations, some were under the control of “illegal religious forces,” which had set up “fortified villages of national splittist and illegal religious activities.” See “Quarterly Chronicle and Documentation,” The China Quarterly, no. 147 (September 1996), p. 1026.

See the account in Colin Mackerras, China’s Ethnic Minorities and Globalisation (London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), pp. 167–8.

For instance, see Ann McMillan, ‘Xinjiang and Central Asia, Interdependency—Not Integration’, in Colin Mackerras and Michael Clarke, eds, China, Xinjiang and Central Asia, History, Transition and Crossborder Interaction into the 21st Century (London and New York: Routledge, 2009), especially p. 111.

Information Office of the State Council, ‘“East Turkistan” Terrorist Forces Cannot Get Away with Impunity’, Beijing Review, vol. 45, no. 5 (31 January 2002), p. 15.

See, for instance, John Ruwitch, ‘China Convicts 50 to Death in “Terror Crackdown”’, Reuters from Urumqi, 13 September 2004.

Human Rights in China, ‘Devastating blows’ p. 4.

Xinhua, ‘Innocent Civilians Make Up 156 in Urumqi Riot Death Toll’, China View, 5 August 2009, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-08/05/content_11831350.htm, retrieved 29 November 2009.

There is now a substantial literature on these July 2009 events. I have given my own analysis in Colin Mackerras, ‘Causes and Ramifications of the Xinjiang July 2009 Disturbances’, Sociology Study, vol. 2, no. 7 (July 2012), pp. 496–510.

Rachel Vandenbrink, “Imam Stabbed to Death After Supporting Crackdown Against Uyghurs.” Radio Free Asia, 16 August 2013, at http://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/shootout-08252013134303.html, accessed 16 October 2013.

Parameswaran Ponnudurai, ‘Imam of Grand Kashgar Mosque Murdered in Xinjiang Violence’, 30 July 2014, Radio Free Asia, at www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/murder-07302014221118.html, accessed 9 July 2015.

In March 1997, a bus explosion attributed to Uyghur terrorists occurred in Beijing near the leadership headquarters of Zhongnanhai.

Allen R. Carlson, ‘China’s Xinjiang after the Bombings: Going from Bad to Worse’, The National Interest, 23 May 2014, web version at http://nationalinterest.org/feature/china%E2%80%99s-xinjiang-after-the-bombings-going-bad-worse-10524, accessed 11 July 2015.

See Alexa Olesen, ‘China Sees Islamic State Inching Closer to Home’, Foreign Affairs, 11 August 2014, http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/08/11/china-sees-islamic-state-inching-closer-to-home/, accessed 11 July 2015.

For instance, see U.S. Department of State Counterterrorism Office, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001 (Washington: Bureau of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of State, 2002), pp. 16–17.

Becquelin, ‘Xinjiang in the Nineties’, p. 89.

Rudelson and Jankowiak, ‘Acculturation and resistance’, p. 314.

Hugh Pope, Sons of the Conquerors: The Rise of the Turkic World (New York: Overlook Duckworth, 2005), p. 150.

For instance, see Kilic Kanat, ‘Repression in China and Its Consequences in Xinjiang’, Hudson Institute, Washington D.C., July 2015, at http://www.hudson.org/research/10480-repression-in-china-and-its-consequences-in-xinjiang, accessed 12 July 2015.

Kanat, ‘Repression in China and Its Consequences in Xinjiang’.

Rudelson and Jankowiak, ‘Acculturation and resistance’, p. 318.

Titel: Religion and the Uyghurs: A Contemporary Overview
verfasst von: Colin Mackerras
Verlag: Palgrave Macmillan US
Buch: The Uyghur Community
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-53144-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-1-137-52297-9

Copyright-Jahr: 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-52297-9_4