Resource Curse or Cure ?

The history of Western Australia is often written as land and resource development with the normative dimension of this history implicitly seen as one of the positive dimensions of civilisation and progress. Yet throughout this history ethical issues abound and, when made explicit, provide opportunities to question and critique the path taken by all humans on this most fragile of continents. Western Australia’s rise to the role of key producer of raw commodities to meet global resource demand invites an ethical analysis of resource extraction in the state. Based on analysis presented we call a for a refocusing of the way humans in Western Australia relate to not only their land or ‘country’ but also the whole planet and argue the need for holistic sustainability and place-based ethics that will be required to undertake such a task.

Over the last few years, there has been increased emphasis placed on the “right way” of doing business involving transparent and ethical interactions with communities of interest. The global resource industry is regarded as the one of the primary champions and leaders of this corporate social responsibility (CSR) movement. Increasingly, however, its credibility within the industry is being challenged by the existence of conflict and confrontation and accusations of company misdemeanours that can surround resource development projects globally. For Western Australia’s resource sector, the liquefied natural gas precinct recently proposed at James Price Point in the Kimberley is a prime example. The aim of this chapter is to take a critical assessment of the relations and practices that define interactions between industry, government and community spheres, as a way to make sense of the conflict that surrounds this project. The analysis is informed by theories of governmentality and spatiality, which captures the ‘spaces of CSR’ framework discussed in this chapter. The argument is presented that resource development projects in Western Australia are shaped and defined by a series of historical, political, institutional, economic and social forces, prevailing values and assumptions and also relations of power. This is shown to play out in the contest surrounding the LNG precinct. As a consequence, the practice of CSR in the resource industry is shown to be more complex, problematic and dynamic than is suggested within broader CSR scholarship.

Much of Western Australia’s economic development and prosperity is derived from mining activity which takes place in remote areas in which Indigenous peoples disproportionately reside, and on country over which Indigenous Australians are now legally recognised as the custodians. It would therefore seem logical that mining should offer a potential basis for improving Indigenous employment and a resource-base upon which to promote self-determination. This paper uses census data to investigate whether the recent mining boom in WA translated into improved employment opportunities for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations living in those areas. Despite significant advancements in the legal framework for Native Title and stated commitments to corporate social responsibility towards local Indigenous populations, the results suggest that Indigenous communities leveraged minimal benefits from the mining boom in terms of employment opportunity.

This chapter draws on the literature on global production networks and spatiality to examine the development of Western Australia and its relationship with the resource sector, with an emphasis on institutional capture, the dynamics of regional development dominated by large external capital, and a contested notion of place.

This chapter draws on interviews with FIFO workers to examine the motivations informing the decision to undertake such work. Through these ‘insider’ voices a complex picture emerges in which a range of material and lifestyle aspirations, including increased wealth and associated opportunities for ‘getting ahead,’ emerge in many cases as central, but also challenging and shifting, goals. Interviewees highlight the ways in which the nature of FIFO work and attendant personal and family compromises, along with broader cultural expectations, contribute to a somewhat paradoxical situation in which workers no longer feel that FIFO work is a choice. The FIFO experience is one that shows clearly the curse–cure dualism that characterises Western Australia’s mining boom.

This chapter examines two core dimensions of women’s gendered experiences of mining in Australia and more specifically in Western Australia (WA). First, the chapter explores what has been and continues to be women’s principal relationship to mining encapsulated in the social and cultural identity of the ‘mining wife’ and, more recently, ‘fly-in/fly-out (FIFO) wife’. Second, the chapter addresses the fraught emergence of women as mineworkers. As the research presented in this chapter makes clear, the human cost of developmentalism was and continues to be deeply gendered.

This chapter reviews the conflict relating to the proposed industrialisation of a remote and relatively pristine tourism region. The West Kimberley region is located in the remote North West of Western Australia with Broome as the regional center. Vibrant culture together with expansive remote wilderness, including rugged landscapes and pristine coastal and marine areas, provide the central components of an iconic nature-based and cultural tourism destination. While a proposal to develop a large-scale onshore oil and gas processing complex on the coast north of Broome has been withdrawn, questions remain about the environmental, social and cultural consequences of such development on a pre-existing tourism industry. The evidence indicates that the development would have significantly impacted on the region, potentially changing its image as a place to live and visit. Benefits to the region from the development would likely be relatively limited. The evidence relating to the relative merits of each sector are presented and discussed.

Currently, Western Australia (WA) is experiencing its biggest ever mining boom in history with predictions about the resource sector underpinning the state’s economic development well into the future. Built on WA’s rich natural resources, the mining sector has traditionally been a pillar of any government’s economic policy, and indeed much of WA’s socio-economic history is associated with its mineral wealth, discoveries and exploitation. From a purely economic viewpoint WA’s landscapes are at times portrayed as not much more than a ‘big quarry’ to exploit, and undeniably, past and present mining and exploration activities have left visible and often irreversible scars scattered across Western Australia.

The broader impacts of mining in the state will provide the requisite background in this chapter, which explores the potential of tourism as a sustainable development alternative in some locations with particular focus on the role of geotourism.

Resource extraction has been a driver of economic growth and development in Western Australia (WA) practically since settlement in the nineteenth century. Over time, the scale and complexity of the mining industry have grown, as has the state’s reliance on the economic contribution of the sector. Mining and petroleum currently account for over 90 % of WA’s export income. But the sector is not universally trusted: public outrage over real or perceived industry impacts on human health and environmental quality have become commonplace. Government policy-making and regulation have long been used to guard against the potential adverse impacts of extractive industry. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) have been a pre-condition for project approval and establishment for nearly three decades. But how effective is the WA regulatory regime in conserving the environment and protecting social values? Is it politically possible to regulate an industry that has become so dominant in the state’s economy? This chapter examines the effectiveness of industry regulation in Western Australia in terms of its ability to adequately address the impacts of the resource sector and to find the requisite balance between the interests of industry and social and environmental concerns.

This chapter identifies and explores the common environmental effects of mining in Western Australia (WA). Utilising unique state-specific data, we examine site-specific factors with reference to metals, mine life cycle, cumulative impacts and temporal disturbance. Emerging trends are discussed with specific reference to WA including in relation to production, ore grades, waste, scale, socio-environmental issues and mine legacy impacts. Finally we explore the constraints on effective environmental management imposed by the WA approach to mining development and discuss challenges for the effective environmental management of mining.

The growth and success of the Western Australian mining, oil and gas industries has brought massive financial benefits to the state, and to the nation as a whole. But what has been the impact on Australia’s biodiversity? Application of the Biodiversity Integrity Index (BII) to five major land uses in Western Australia (namely, agricultural clearing, rangeland grazing, urbanisation, transport corridors and mining) results in a figure that indicates the degree of alienation (‘product of loss times area affected’) caused by each type of land use. An examination of the extent of this land alienation indicates that mining has by far the least impact (the state being considered as a whole). However, it should be remembered that there are multiplier effects impacting outside the mined area, and that mining also repeatedly targets particular geological formations with their associated ecosystems. This means that impacts are cumulative through time, and points to the fact that certain ecosystems will increasingly be threatened. These factors, and the escalating pace of mine site development, suggest that it is time to ask: what is important to us in Australia?

This chapter examines the multifaceted nature of the relationship between water and mining. Several perspectives are offered. Mines are located to gain access to the mineral, but this is always in the context of water. The conditions under which the water has carved a catchment are strongly influenced by the climatic regime and the geological foundations under which the soil has been formed and vegetation has evolved. Mining is an embedded activity, located unambiguously in a landscape shaped by water. Mining as an activity must have a strategy for accessing, disposing of and using water. Mining relies on water for its operation, often using it intensively to achieve its production quota.

This chapter also explores the relationship between mining and the use of water in the urban setting. Engineering feats, technological developments and regulatory frameworks facilitated by a history of mining in Western Australia (WA) have led to accessibility and exploitation of water for other purposes. How water is extracted can be likened to ‘mining water’ and how the treatment of water for human consumption uses mining by-products is considered.

These perspectives highlight societal vulnerabilities to the environmental, psychological, sociocultural and political impacts of mining, that go beyond traditional perspectives of the advantages or disadvantages and cost benefit analysis of mining in society. The consequence of this traditional perspective is that water can be treated solely as a commodity, while other values of water are overlooked. Reconsidering the fundamental value and importance of water to society together with the embedded nature of mines in the landscape enables an insightful perspective on the contribution that mining and water make to society. Secondly, recognising the influence that mining has on patterns of water use, regulation and distribution may enable further consideration of sustainable water use in other settings.

This chapter examines local community experiences, understandings and changes attending the presence of mining activity, in particular as occurred in the Shire of Ravensthorpe in the South West of Western Australia (WA). It does so by drawing on an extensive ethnographic study spanning the development, opening, and closure of BHP Billiton’s Ravensthorpe Nickel Operation (RNO). Given that the negative consequences of mining activity are most evident and complex at the local level, it is crucial that we understand and address how communities (and the individuals and families who are both part of and are shaped by communities) experience the impacts of mining. Though difficult to measure, social and cultural dimensions of mining at the local scale, as this chapter demonstrates, are central to our understanding of mining as a curse or cure.

This chapter addresses resource development in Western Australia from a social sustainability perspective. It will be shown, based on the experiences of members of a small community, that the benefits assumed to result from economic development in the name of progress and regional sustainability can fail to result in wealth and health for local people. The problems identified here serve as prompts for critical reflection on the purpose of development, and the requisite balancing of community and industry interests. An engagement with the social sustainability agenda in Western Australia is called for in light of the state’s very rapid development path and the growing potential for conflict with its intended beneficiaries.

This chapter examines the nature of partnerships between mining companies and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in regional Western Australia from the perspective of Indigenous health, well-being and culture. Reference will be made to specific examples of such partnerships, and attention drawn to research indicating a correlation between the health and well-being of Indigenous people, and their connection to traditional culture along with ‘self-determination’. The impetus Native Title legislation has given to promoting dialogue, collaboration and negotiation between the mining industry and Indigenous communities will be considered, along with an apparent readiness by the mining industry to be more supportive generally of Indigenous culture and its place in mainstream Australia. The chapter will focus particularly on the participation of Indigenous individuals in the mining workforce and related business opportunities, the role and potential of cultural awareness training supplied by Indigenous communities to the mining industry and suggestions as to future directions.

WA’s experience, as portrayed in this volume, not only highlights the changeable nature of the mining industry, the volatility of global commodity markets and the impact of global capital on people and place, it also draws into question the promise of lasting value derived from resource development as currently practiced. It is in this context that Chapter 18 revisits WA's resource boom and assesses the sustainability of resource-led development in the state, to arrive at an answer to the question of ‘curse or cure?’. Opening up the discourse beyond the dominant developmentalist narrative invites discussion on new perspectives of economic sustainability that include well-being, equity and the protection of people, culture and place.