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## Über dieses Buch

High resolution upwind and centred methods are today a mature generation of computational techniques applicable to a wide range of engineering and scientific disciplines, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) being the most prominent up to now. This textbook gives a comprehensive, coherent and practical presentation of this class of techniques. The book is designed to provide readers with an understanding of the basic concepts, some of the underlying theory, the ability to critically use the current research papers on the subject, and, above all, with the required information for the practical implementation of the methods. Direct applicability of the methods include: compressible, steady, unsteady, reactive, viscous, non-viscous and free surface flows. For this third edition the book was thoroughly revised and contains substantially more, and new material both in its fundamental as well as in its applied parts.

## Inhaltsverzeichnis

### 1. The Equations of Fluid Dynamics

In this chapter we present the governing equations for the dynamics of a compressible material, such as a gas, along with closure conditions in the form of equations of state. Equations of state are statements about the nature of the material in question and require some notions from Thermodynamics. There is no attempt to provide an exhaustive and rigourous derivation of the equations of continuum mechanics; such a task is beyond the scope of this book. Instead, we give a fairly self–contained summary of the equations and the Thermodynamics in a manner that is immediately useful to the main purpose of this book, namely the detailed treatment of Riemann solvers and numerical methods.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 2. Notions on Hyperbolic Partial Differential Equations

In this chapter we study some elementary properties of a class of hyperbolic Partial Differential Equations (PDEs). The selected aspects of the equations are those thought to be essential for the analysis of the equations of fluid flow and the implementation of numerical methods. For general background on PDEs we recommend the book by John [272] and particularly the one by Zachmanoglou and Thoe [596]. The discretisation techniques studied in this book are strongly based on the underlying Physics and mathematical properties of PDEs. It is therefore justified to devote some effort to some fundamentals on PDEs. Here we deal almost exclusively with hyperbolic PDEs and hyperbolic conservation laws in particular. There are three main reasons for this: (i) The equations of compressible fluid flow reduce to hyperbolic systems, the Euler equations, when the effects of viscosity and heat conduction are neglected. (ii) Numerically, it is generally accepted that the hyperbolic terms of the PDEs of fluid flow are the terms that pose the most stringent requirements on the discretisation techniques. (iii) The theory of hyperbolic systems is much more advanced than that for more complete mathematical models, such as the Navier–Stokes equations. In addition, there has in recent years been a noticeable increase in research and development activities centred on the theme of hyperbolic problems, as these cover a wide range of areas of scientific and technological interest.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 3. Some Properties of the Euler Equations

In this chapter we apply the mathematical tools presented in Chap. 2 to analyse some of the basic properties of the time–dependent Euler equations. As seen in Chap. 1, the Euler equations result from neglecting the effects of viscosity, heat conduction and body forces on a compressible medium. Here we show that these equations are a system of hyperbolic conservations laws and study some of their mathematical properties. In particular, we study those properties that are essential for finding the solution of the Riemann problem in Chap. 4. We analyse the eigenstructure of the equations, that is, we find eigenvalues and eigenvectors; we study properties of the characteristic fields and establish basic relations across rarefactions, contacts and shock waves. It is worth remarking that the process of finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors usually involves a fair amount of algebra as well as some familiarity with basic physical quantities and their relations. For very complex systems of equations finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors may require the use of symbolic manipulators. Useful background reading for this chapter is found in Chaps. 1 and 2.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 4. The Riemann Problem for the Euler Equations

In his classical paper of 1959, Godunov [216] presented a conservative extension of the first–order upwind scheme of Courant, Isaacson and Rees [144] to non–linear systems of hyperbolic conservation laws. The key ingredient of the scheme is the solution of the Riemann problem. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a detailed presentation of the complete, exact solution to the Riemann problem for the one–dimensional, time–dependent Euler equations for ideal and covolume gases, including vacuum conditions. The methodology can then be applied to other hyperbolic systems.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 5. Notions on Numerical Methods

We assume the reader to be familiar with some basic concepts on numerical methods for partial differential equations in general. In particular, we shall assume the concepts of truncation error, order of accuracy, consistency, modified equation, stability and convergence. For background on these concepts the reader may consult virtually any standard book on numerical methods for differential equations. As general references, useful textbooks are those of Smith [450], Anderson et. al. [7], Mitchell and Griffiths [352], Roache [405], Richtmyer and Morton [402], Hoffmann [253] and Fletcher [192]. Very relevant textbooks to the main themes of this book are Sod [454], Holt [254], Hirsch Volumes I [251] and II [252], LeVeque [308], Godlewski and Raviart [215], Kröoner [291] and Thomas [484].
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 6. The Method of Godunov for Non—linear Systems

It was almost 40 years ago when Godunov [216] produced a conservative extension of the first–order upwind scheme of Courant, Isaacson and Rees [144] to non–linear systems of hyperbolic conservation laws. In Chap. 5 we advanced a description of Godunov’s method in terms of scalar equations and linear systems with constant coefficients. In this chapter, we describe the scheme for general non–linear hyperbolic systems; in particular, we give a detailed description of the technique as applied to the time–dependent, one dimensional Euler equations.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 7. Random Choice and Related Methods

In 1965, Glimm [212] introduced the Random Choice Method (RCM) as part of a constructive proof of existence of solutions to a class of non–linear systems of hyperbolic conservation laws. In 1976, Chorin [110] successfully implemented a modified version of the method, as a computational technique, to solve the Euler equations of Gas Dynamics. In essence, to implement the RCM one requires (i) exact solutions of local Riemann problems and (ii) a random sampling procedure to pick up states to be assigned to the next time level.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 8. Flux Vector Splitting Methods

A distinguishing feature of upwind numerical methods is this: the discretisation of the equations on a mesh is performed according to the direction of propagation of information on that mesh. In this way, salient features of the physical phenomena modelled by the equations are incorporated into the discretisation schemes. There are essentially two approaches for identifying upwind directions, namely the Godunov approach [216] studied in Chap. 6, and the Flux Vector Splitting (FVS) approach [424], [463], [560], [561] to be studied in this chapter. These two approaches are often referred to as the Riemann approach and the Boltzmann approach [244]. The respective numerical methods derived from these two approaches are often referred to as Flux Difference Splitting Methods and Flux Vector Splitting Methods.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 9. Approximate—State Riemann Solvers

The method of Godunov [216] and its high—order extensions require the solution of the Riemann problem. In a practical computation this is solved billions of times, making the Riemann problem solution process the single most demanding task in the numerical method. In Chap. 4 we provided exact Riemann solvers for the Euler equations for ideal and covolume gases. An iterative procedure is always involved and the associated computational effort may not always be justified. This effort may increase dramatically by equations of state of complicated algebraic form or by the complexity of the particular system of equations being solved, or both. Approximate, non—iterative solutions have the potential to provide the necessary items of information for numerical purposes.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 10. The HLL and HLLC Riemann Solvers

The approximate Riemann solver proposed by Harten Lax and van Leer (HLL) in 1983 requires estimates for the fastest signal velocities emerging from the initial discontinuity at the interface, resulting in a two–wave model for the structure of the exact solution. A more accurate method is the HLLC, introduced by Toro and collaborators in 1992. This method assumes a three–wave model, resulting in better resolution of intermediate waves.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 11. The Riemann Solver of Roe

Perhaps, the most well–known of all approximate Riemann solvers today, is the one due to Roe, which was first presented in the open literature in 1981 [407]. Since then, the method has not only been refined, but it has also been applied to a very large variety of physical problems. Refinements to the Roe approach were introduced by Roe and Pike [416], whereby the computation of the necessary items of information does not explicitly require the Roe averaged Jacobian matrix. This second methodology appears to be simpler and is thus useful in solving the Riemann problem for new, complicated sets of hyperbolic conservations laws, or for conventional systems but for complex media. Glaister exploited the Roe–Pike approach to extend Roe’s method to the time–dependent Euler equations with a general equation of state [208], [209].
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 12. The Riemann Solver of Osher

Osher’s approximate Riemann solver is one of the earliest in the literature. The bases of the approach were communicated in the papers by Engquist and Osher in 1981 [185] and Osher and Solomon the following year [372]. Applications to the Euler equations were published later in a paper by Osher and Chakravarthy [370]. Since then the scheme has gained increasing popularity, particularly within the CFD community concerned with Steady Aerodynamics; see for example the works of Spekreijse [458], [459], Hemker and Spekreijse [247], Koren and Spekreijse [290], Qin et. al. [393], [394], [395], [396], [390], [391], [392]. One of the attractions of Osher’s scheme is the smoothness of the numerical flux; the scheme has also been proved to be entropy satisfying and in practical computations it is seen to handle sonic flow well. A distinguishing feature of the Osher scheme is its performance near slowly–moving shock waves; see Roberts [406], Billett and Toro [60] and Arora and Roe [19].
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 13. High–Order and TVD Methods for Scalar Equations

Central to this chapter is the resolution of two contradictory requirements on numerical methods, namely high–order of accuracy and absence of spurious (unphysical) oscillations in the vicinity of large gradients. It is well–known that high–order linear (constant coefficients) schemes produce unphysical oscillations in the vicinity of large gradients. This was illustrated by some numerical results shown in Chap. 5. On the other hand, the class of monotone methods, defined in Sect. 5.2 of Chap. 5, do not produce unphysical oscillations. However, monotone methods are at most first order accurate and are therefore of limited use. These difficulties are embodied in the statement of Godunov’s theorem [216] to be studied in Sect. 13.5.3. One way of resolving the contradiction between linear schemes of high–order of accuracy and absence of spurious oscillations is by constructing non–linear methods.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 14. High–Order and TVD Schemes for Non–Linear Systems

This chapter is concerned with TVD upwind and centred schemes for non–linear systems of conservation laws that depend on time t, or a time–like variable t, and one space dimension x. The upwind schemes are extensions of the Godunov first order upwind method of Chap. 6 and can be applied with any of the Riemann solvers presented in Chap. 4 (exact) and Chaps. 9 to 12 (approximate); they can also be used with the Flux Vector Splitting flux of Chap. 8. The centred schemes are extensions of the First Order Centred (force) method presented in Chap. 7. All the TVD schemes are in effect the culmination of work carried out in all previous chapters, particularly Chap. 13, where the TVD concept was developed in the context of simple scalar problems. The schemes are presented in terms of the time–dependent one dimensional Euler equations for ideal gases, which are introduced in Chap. 1 and studied in detail in Chap. 3. Applications to other systems may be easily accomplished.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 15. Splitting Schemes for PDEs with Source Terms

This chapter is concerned with numerical methods for solving non–linear systems of hyperbolic conservation laws with source terms.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 16. Methods for Multi–Dimensional PDEs

This chapter is concerned with numerical methods for solving non–linear systems of hyperbolic conservation laws in multidimensions. For Cartesian geometries one may write the equations of our interest here as
$$\mathbf{U}_t+\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{U})_x+\mathbf{G}(\mathbf{U})_y+\mathbf{H}(\mathbf{U})_z=\mathbf{0},$$
(16.1)
where t denotes time or a time–like variable and x, y, z are Cartesian coordinate directions.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 17. Multidimensional Test Problems

This chapter is concerned with tests for assessing numerical solutions to multidimensional problems. The assessment of the numerical methods to be used in practical computations, prior to their actual application, is of considerable importance and cannot be emphasised enough. There are four classes of test problems that can be used, namely (A) tests with exact solution, (B) tests with reliable numerical solution to equivalent one–dimensional equations obtained under the assumption of symmetry for instance, (C) tests for which other numerical solutions are available and (D) tests for which experimental results are available. In the first three categories of test problems one solves the same or equivalent governing partial differential equations and thus one seeks complete agreement in the comparisons. Care is required in class (D) when experimental results are used.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 18. FORCE Fluxes in Multiple Space Dimensions

This chapter contains a multidimensional extension of the centred FORCE numerical flux introduced in chapter 7. The extension applies to structured and unstructured meshes in two and three spatial dimensions. The resulting one–step schemes in conservative form are shown to be monotone and linearly stable for a generous range of Courant numbers. Sample numerical results are shown for the basic first–order FORCE schemes as well as for higher–order extensions in space and time using the ADER approach.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 19. The Generalized Riemann Problem

In this chapter we study a technique for solving the generalized Riemann problem for systems of non–linear hyperbolic partial differential equations with source terms. The generalized Riemann problem studied here is a twofold generalization of the classical Riemann problem studied in previous chapters, namely: (i) the two vector fields that define the initial conditions are arbitrary but smooth away from the interface and (ii) the governing hyperbolic equations include source terms. We note that in the literature this Cauchy problem has also been termed Derivative Riemann Problem and High–Order Riemann Problem. In this book we shall adopt the terminology Generalized Riemann Problem and will be denoted by GRP K . Here K is an arbitrary non–negative integer and stands for the order of the approximation.
Eleuterio F. Toro

This chapter is an introduction to the ADER family of fully–discrete, one–step methods of arbitrary order of accuracy in space and time, for solving hyperbolic equations with source terms. These schemes are a generalization of the Godunov method. The numerical flux is computed as a time–integral average of the flux function evaluated at the solution of the generalized Riemann problem studied in chapter 19, and the numerical source is computed as a high–order space-time integral of the source term in the appropriate control volume. The ADER approach operates in the framework of finite volumes and of discontinuous Galerkin finite elements. Here we deal with the finite volume framework for one-dimensional model problems.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### 21. Concluding Remarks

Here we first summarize the main themes of this book, point out some related topics that have been excluded and give updated supplementary references. We also discuss potential practical applications of the methods studied and point out some current areas of research on numerical methods. Finally, we briefly describe the library NUMERICA.
Eleuterio F. Toro

### Backmatter

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