Skip to main content

2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

2. Rights of Asylum: Overview of International and European Laws Concerning Inclusion and Exclusion

verfasst von : Magdalena Smieszek

Erschienen in: The Evolving Psyche of Law in Europe

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

Aktivieren Sie unsere intelligente Suche um passende Fachinhalte oder Patente zu finden.

search-config
loading …

Abstract

Awareness of and legal entitlement to rights within a global community of belongingness is fundamental, as Hannah Arendt so profoundly put it. A refugee herself, Arendt placed the rights of citizens above the fundamental of freedom and justice, noting that what is at stake is belonging to a community of human rights when the rights as citizens are taken away. That experience of inclusion or exclusion via rights, and the relationship between having rights as a human being in a global community and rights as a recognized member of certain status is of concern here. Inclusion and exclusion in this book refer broadly to legal status determination based on category definitions as well as asylum-related social and economic rights and integration. This chapter gives an overview of the rights concerning asylum under international and European law, the gradations of inclusion and exclusion, touching on their paradoxes, history, and some underlying psychology. A closer focus is placed here on rights in regards to employment, housing, and social benefits for asylum seekers, refugees, and related status categories. In the legal provisions that will be explored, inclusion and exclusion are expressed vividly and the substance of these rules and rights can also be viewed as determinants of social value that are in turn tied up with social psychological inclinations.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 102.000 Bücher
  • über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
  • Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Versicherung + Risiko




Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Fußnoten
1
Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, 1968, p. 177 [cited in:] Benhabib (2004), p. 51. This quote is preceded by: “Something much more fundamental than freedom and justice, which are rights of citizens, is at stake when belonging to a community into which one is born is no longer a matter of course and not belonging no longer a matter of choice, or when one is placed in a situation where, unless he commits a crime, his treatment by others does not depend on what he does or does not do. This extremity, and nothing else, is the situation of people deprived of human rights.”
 
2
Kirchheimer (1959), p. 985.
 
3
Greenberg (1959), pp. 125–132; Stackert (2006), pp. 23–49; UNHCR, “Islam and Refugees” UN High Commissioner’s Dialogue on Protection Challenges. Theme: Faith and Protection English (12–13 December 2012); Zaat (2007); Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh (1996), pp. 37–57.
 
4
Goldman and Martin (1983), p. 309; Edwards (2005), p. 299.
 
5
Van Hooft (2009) (Kindle Edition), Loc 389 of 5668; Appiah (2006).
 
6
Kant (2002); Kleingeld (2012); Brown (2010), pp. 308–327.
 
7
Article 14(2).
 
8
Kapferer (2008), p. 54.
 
9
Edwards (2005), pp. 293–330.
 
10
Ibid, p. 294.
 
11
Ibid, p. 299; Plender and Mole (1999), p. 81.
 
12
Edwards (2005), p. 298.
 
13
UN General Assembly, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137; UN General Assembly, Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, 28 September 1954, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 360, p. 117; UN General Assembly, Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness, 30 August 1961, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 989, p. 175.
 
14
Organization of American States (OAS), American Convention on Human Rights, “Pact of San Jose,” Costa Rica, 22 November 1969 in Article 22 (7) states that “Every person has the right to seek and be granted asylum in a foreign territory, in accordance with the legislation of the state and international conventions”; Organization of African Unity (OAU), African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (“Banjul Charter”), 27 June 1981, CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982) states in Article 12 (3) that “Every individual shall have the right, when persecuted, to seek and obtain asylum in other countries in accordance with the law of those countries and international conventions”; Organization of African Unity (OAU), Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (“OAU Convention”), 10 September 1969, 1001 U.N.T.S. 45 states in Article 2 (2) “The grant of asylum to refugees is a peaceful and humanitarian act and shall not be regarded as an unfriendly act by any Member State” and subsequent sections repeatedly mention the granting of asylum.
 
15
“Article 18: Right to asylum: The right to asylum shall be guaranteed with due respect for the rules of the Geneva Convention of 28 July 1951 and the Protocol of 31 January 1967 relating to the status of refugees and in accordance with the Treaty establishing the European Community.”
 
16
Article 13. Emphasis added.
 
17
Article 12.
 
18
Weissbrodt and Divine (2012) (Kindle edition), p. 157.
 
19
UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III).
 
20
Weiss (2012).
 
21
UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 999, p. 171; UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 993, p. 3.
 
22
ICCPR, Art 2(1) “Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.” ICCPR, Art 26: “All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.”
 
23
Shiek et al. (2007), p. 57.
 
24
Wimmer and Feinstein (2010), pp. 764–790; Hearn (2006); Brubaker (1996); Gellner (1983); Anderson (2000).
 
25
Fredman (2011a), p. 5.
 
26
UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), CCPR General Comment No. 18: Non-discrimination, 10 November 1989.
 
27
UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), CCPR General Comment No. 15: The Position of Aliens under the Covenant, 11 April 1986, para. 2. Reference to “discrimination of any kind” refers to ICCPR Article 2(1): “Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status” and ICESCR Article 2(2): “2. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to guarantee that the rights enunciated in the present Covenant will be exercised without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.”
 
28
Ibid General Comment No. 15, paras 1, 8; Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1 (1994).
 
29
UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), General Comment 18, Non-discrimination (Thirty-seventh session, 1989), Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1 at 26 (1994), para 8.
 
30
UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, General Recommendation 30, Discrimination against Non-citizens (Sixty-fourth session, 2004), U.N. Doc. CERD/C/64/Misc.11/rev.3 (2004).
 
31
Hathaway (2005), p. 465.
 
32
UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), CCPR General Comment No. 6: Article 6 (Right to Life), 30 April 1982, para 1.
 
33
ICESCR, Article 2 (2) “The State Parties to the present Covenant undertake to guarantee that the rights enunciated in the present Covenant will be exercised without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status: Article 2 (3) Developing countries, with due regard to human rights and their national economy, may determine to what extent they would guarantee the economic rights recognized in the present Covenant to non-nationals.”
 
34
Pastore and Henry (2016), pp. 44–57.
 
35
ICESCR, Article 2.
 
36
UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2, Para. 1, of the Covenant), 14 December 1990, E/1991/23, para 10.
 
37
Ibid, para 12.
 
38
UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General comment No. 20: Non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights (art. 2, para. 2, of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), 2 July 2009, E/C.12/GC/20 [hereinafter CESCR, General Comment No. 20], para 13: “Differential treatment based on prohibited grounds will be viewed as discriminatory unless the justification for differentiation is reasonable and objective. This will include an assessment as to whether the aim and effects of the measures or omissions are legitimate, compatible with the nature of the Covenant rights and solely for the purpose of promoting the general welfare in a democratic society. In addition, there must be a clear and reasonable relationship of proportionality between the aim sought to be realized and the measures or omissions and their effects. A failure to remove differential treatment on the basis of a lack of available resources is not an objective and reasonable justification unless every effort has been made to use all resources that are at the State party’s disposition in an effort to address and eliminate the discrimination, as a matter of priority.”
 
39
Ibid.
 
40
ICESCR, Articles 11(1), 22 and 23.
 
41
Fredman (2008) (Kindle edition), p. 1966.
 
42
Cholewinski (2004); Winkler and Mahler (2013), pp. 388–401.
 
43
Fredman (2001), p. 66.
 
44
Fredman (2011b), p. 14.
 
45
McCrudden (2004), para. 11.71; Hathaway (2005), pp. 124–125.
 
46
Fredman (2016), pp. 713 and 727; Sen (1995), p. 1wrote: “the effect of ignoring the interpersonal variations can, in fact, be deeply inegalitarian, in hiding the fact that equal consideration for all may demand very unequal treatment in favour of the disadvantaged.”
 
47
The often cited case is that of Oulajin and Kaiss v. the Netherlands, where the Human Rights Committee states, concerning the discrimination provision in the ICCPR: “with regard to the application of art 26…in the field of economic and social rights, it is evident that social security legislation, which is intended to achieve aims of a social justice, necessarily must make distinctions. It is for the legislature of each country, which best knows the socio-economic needs of the society concerned, to try to achieve social justice in the concrete context. Unless the distinctions made are manifestly discriminatory or arbitrary, it is not for the Committee to reevaluate the complex socio-economic data and substitute its judgment for that of the legislatures of States parties” Communication, No. 426/1990, Oulajin and Kaiss v. the Netherlands, Views adopted on 23 October 1992, paragraph 7.5.
 
48
Ratjen and Satija (2014).
 
49
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status and Guidelines on International Protection Under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, April 2019, HCR/1P/4/ENG/REV. 4, para 7 [hereinafter UNHCR Handbook 2019] Events was understood as “happenings of major importance involving territorial or profound political changes as well as systematic programmes of persecution which are after-effects of earlier changes,” para 36 of UNHCR Handbook 2019; UN General Assembly, Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 31 January 1967, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 606, p. 267.
 
50
Ibid UNHCR Handbook 2019, para 38.
 
51
Ibid, para 40.
 
52
Article 33 states that “no Contracting State shall expel or return (refouler) a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.”
 
53
UNHCR, “Note on International Protection” UN Doc. A/AC.96/815 (1993), para 11.
 
54
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Global Consultations on International Protection/Third Track: Reception of Asylum-Seekers, Including Standards of Treatment, in the Context of Individual Asylum Systems, 4 September 2001, EC/GC/01/17, para. 3.
 
55
Grahl-Madsen (1972), p. 374.
 
56
Goodwin-Gill and McAdam (2007), pp. 525–526.
 
57
Ibid, pp. 524–526.
 
58
Hathaway (2005).
 
59
Ibid, p. 171. In the 1951 Refugee Convention, this refers to articles concerning freedom to religion (Article 4), to receive identity papers (Article 27), freedom from penalization for illegal entry (Article 31), and to be subject to only necessary and justifiable constraints on freedom of movement (Article 26).
 
60
Ibid, p. 173. This refers to freedom of movement (Article 26) and right to engage in self-employment (Article 18) within the Refugee Convention.
 
61
Ibid, p. 186. This refers to freedom of association (Article 15), the right to engage in wage earning employment (Article 17) and to practice a profession (Article 19), access to public housing (Article 21) and welfare (Article 23), protection of labour and social security legislation (Article 24), intellectual property rights (Article 14), and entitlement to travel documentation (Article 28).
 
62
Ibid, p. 190. Right to legal aid and to receive national treatment in regard to the posting of security for costs in court proceedings (Article 16).
 
63
Edwards (2005), p. 304 [citing:] UNHCR, ‘Reception of asylum-seekers’, p. 1, referring to Executive Committee Conclusion No. 82 (XLVIII) on ‘Safeguarding Asylum’, 1997.
 
64
This is found in provisions concerning freedom of non-political association (Article 15) and right to engage in wage earning employment (Article 17) in the 1951 Refugee Convention.
 
65
This is found in provisions concerning self-employment (Article 18), liberal professions (Article 19), housing (Article 21) and acquiring movable and immovable property (Article 13).
 
66
Statement of Mr. Henkin of the United States, UN Doc. E/AC.32/SR.37, Aug 16, 1950, p. 7.
 
67
Goodwin-Gill and McAdam (2007), p. 526.
 
68
The Statute of the UNHCR further calls on Governments to co-operate with them in this regard.
 
69
Edwards (2005), p. 307.
 
70
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), The Refugee Convention, 1951: The Travaux préparatoires analysed with a Commentary by Dr. Paul Weis, 1990 on Article 34: Naturalization [hereinafter Travaux with Commentary by Paul Weis].
 
71
Robinson, Convention relating to the Status of Refugees: Its History, Contents and Interpretation, 1953, re-published by UNHCR, 1997, p. 142, and UNHCR, Local Integration, p. 2.
 
72
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), A New Beginning: Refugee Integration in Europe, September 2013, p. 13.
 
73
UNHCR, (2002) “4th Meeting: Global Consultations on International Protection” EC/GC/02/6, 25 April 2002.
 
74
Travaux with Commentary by Paul Weis, supra note 70.
 
75
Travaux with Commentary by Paul Weis: The UK representative was not satisfied with the text as he did not think that high Government could reduce the period of residency that their law required for naturalization in order to expedite proceedings to give priority to refugees over others, or to lower the procedural costs that were already very low. The Belgian representative noted that in some countries it was necessary to encourage an acceleration of the procedure and reduction in fees where it was not as swift and inexpensive as the UK. A significant clarification came from the French representative that the reference to expediting proceedings in the Article did not refer to the duration of residence “but only to the administrative formalities taking place between the submission of the application and the decision.” A forceful comment at the Ad Hoc meeting that was follow by a reservation to the article at the Conference of Plenipotentiaries came from Italy that the Italian Government could not accept a clause that would “embitter - even slightly - the internal situation at present causing the gravest concern due to over-population and unemployment.” The result was that, in accordance with the view of the UK representative, the article became a recommendation rather than a binding legal obligation, with the non-committal language compelling States only “as far as possible” and to “make every effort”.
 
76
One of three durable solutions, the other two being resettlement and voluntary repatriation.
 
77
Edwards (2005), p. 307.
 
78
UNHCR, “Local Integration” Global Consultations on International Protection, 4th Meeting, UN doc. EC/GC/02/6, 25 Apr. 2002, para. 5.
 
79
Ibid, para 6.
 
80
Da Costa (2006).
 
81
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Refugee Integration and the Use of Indicators: Evidence from Central Europe, December 2013.
 
82
Article 23: “(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment; (2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work; (3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection; (4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.”
 
83
Craven (1995).
 
84
Sen (1997), pp. 156–171.
 
85
Fredman (2011b), p. 107.
 
86
ILO Convention No. 168 concerning Employment Promotion and Protection against Unemployment (adopted 21 June 1988, 1654 UNTS 67, entered into force 17 October 1991) states in the preamble: “ …the importance of work and productive employment in any society not only because of the resources which they create for the community they bring to workers, the social role which they confer and the feeling of self-esteem which workers derive from them.”
 
87
UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 18: The Right to Work (Art. 6 of the Covenant), 6 February 2006, E/C.12/GC/18, para 1: “The right to work is essential for realizing other human rights and forms an inseparable and inherent part of human dignity. Every individual has the right to be able to work, allowing him/her to live in dignity. The right to work contributes at the same time to the survival of the individual and to that of his/her family, and insofar as the work is freely chosen or accepted, to his/her development and recognition within the community.”
 
88
Cited in Travaux with Commentary by Paul Weis on Article 17: Wage-earning employment; cited in Hathaway (2005), p. 231.
 
89
Edwards (2005), p. 320.
 
90
Kirkwood et al. (2016).
 
91
Article 23 of the UDHR 1948; and article 6 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, G.A. Res. 2200 A(XXI), of 16 December 1966.
 
92
This means that everyone has a right to an adequate standard of living with or without having earned it through work, though the opportunity to earn it is its own right.
 
93
Article 4 of the ICESCR reads as follows: “The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that, in the enjoyment of those rights provided by the State in conformity with the present Covenant, the State may subject such rights only to such limitations as are determined by law only in so far as this may be compatible with the nature of these rights, and solely for the purpose of promoting the general welfare in a democratic society.”
 
94
Da Costa (2006), p. 20, fn 47 summarizes these arguments as described in Dent (1998), p. 11.
 
95
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 14, The right to the highest attainable standard of health (Twenty-second session, 2000), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2000/4 (2000), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6, 2003, p. 85.
 
96
Saul et al. (2014), pp. 315–316.
 
97
Ibid, pp. 316–317.
 
98
Ibid, p. 292.
 
99
CESCR, General Comment No. 20, supra note 38, para 31.
 
100
Ibid, para 33. Emphasis added.
 
101
Da Costa (2006), p. 55 explains: “Liberal professions usually refers to lawyers, physicians, architects, dentists, pharmacists, engineers, veterinarians, artists, and probably other professions such as accountants, interpreters, scientists etc. While “profession” denotes the possession of certain qualifications, such as a diploma or license for example, the term “liberal” suggests that this professional works on his own rather than as a salaried employee or State agent.”
 
102
Article refers specifically to self-employment in agriculture, industry, handicrafts and commerce and to establish commercial and industrial companies.
 
103
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Commentary of the Refugee Convention 1951 (Articles 2–11, 13–37), October 1997 written by Professor Atle Grahl-Madsen in 1963; re-published by the Department of International Protection in October 1997 [hereinafter Atle Grahl-Madsen, Commentary].
 
104
Da Costa (2006), p. 54.
 
105
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons. Its History and Interpretation, 1997, available at: A commentary by Nehemiah Robinson, Institute of Jewish Affairs, World Jewish Congress, 1955. Reprinted by the Division of International Protection of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, p. 83 [hereinafter Robinson, History and Interpretation].
 
106
Da Costa (2006), p. 49.
 
107
Ibid.
 
108
Robinson, History and Interpretation, supra note 105, p. 83.
 
109
Hathaway (2005), pp. 746–747.
 
110
Atle Grahl-Madsen, Commentary, supra note 103.
 
111
Hohmann (2013), p. 167 [cited in:] Saul et al. (2014), p. 927.
 
112
UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 4: The Right to Adequate Housing (Art. 11 (1) of the Covenant), 13 December 1991, E/1992/23.
 
113
Saul et al. (2014), p. 927.
 
114
Ibid, p. 929.
 
115
Article 25 of the UDHR states the right of everyone “to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.” Article 11 of ICESCR says that State parties shall “recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and to the continuous improvement of living conditions.”
 
116
Ibid, para 8.
 
117
UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 7: The Right to Adequate Housing (Art. 11.1): Forced Evictions, 20 May 1997, E/1998/22; UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 4: The Right to Adequate Housing (Art. 11(1) of the Covenant), 13 December 1991, E/1992/23, para 7: “In the Committees view, the right to housing should not be interpreted in a narrow or restrictive sense which equates it with, for example, the shelter provided by merely having a roof over one’s head or views shelter exclusive as a commodity. Rather it should be seen as the right to live somewhere in security, peace and dignity. This is appropriate for at least two reasons. In the first place, the right to housing is integrally linked to other human rights and to the fundamental principles upon which the Covenant is premised. This ‘the inherent dignity of the human person’ from which the rights in the Covenant are said to derive requires that the term ‘housing’ be interpreted so as to take account of a variety of other considerations, most importantly that the right to housing should be ensured to all persons irrespective of income or access to economic resources.” [hereinafter CESCR General Comment No. 4, Housing].
 
118
Ibid General Comment No. 4, Housing, para 6: “The right to adequate housing applies to everyone. …individuals as well as families, are entitled to adequate housing regardless of age, economic status, group or other affiliation or status and other such factors. In particular, enjoyment of this right must, in accordance with article 2(2) of the Covenant, not be subject to any form of discrimination.”
 
119
Da Costa (2006), p. 68.
 
120
Fredman (2008), p. 1953; CESCR General Comment No. 4, Housing, supra note 117, paras 6–8.
 
121
CESCR General Comment No. 4, Housing, supra note 117, para 11: “State parties must give due priority to those social groups living in unfavourable conditions by giving them particular consideration. Policies and legislation should correspondingly not be designed to benefit already advantaged social groups at the expense of others.” Para 13: “Effective monitoring of the situation with respect to housing is another obligation of immediate effect. For a State party to satisfy its obligations under article 11 (1) it must demonstrate, inter alia, that is has taken whatever steps are necessary, either alone or on the basis of international cooperation, to ascertain the full extent of homelessness and inadequate housing within its jurisdiction. In this regard, the revised general guidelines regarding the form and contents of reports adopted by the Committee (E/C. 121991/1) emphasize the need to ‘provide detailed information about those groups within…society that are vulnerable and disadvantaged with regard to housing’. They include, in particular, homeless persons and families, those inadequately housed and without ready access to basic amenities, those living in ‘illegal’ settlements, those subject to forced evictions and low-income groups.”
 
122
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Adequate Housing as a Component of the Right to an Adequate Standard of Living, and on the Right to Non-Discrimination in This Context, Raquel Rolnik, 4 February 2009, A/HRC/10/7.
 
123
Saul et al. (2014), p. 931.
 
124
Refugee Convention, Article 21.
 
125
Hathaway (2005), p. 824.
 
126
Statement of Rain (France), Ad Hoc Committee on Statelessness and Related Problems, UN Doc. E/AC.32/SR.15 (1950) [in:] Zimmerman (2011), p. 1048.
 
127
Ibid, p. 806.
 
128
Council of Europe, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, as amended by Protocols Nos. 11 and 14, 4 November 1950, ETS 5.
 
129
Council of Europe, European Social Charter (ESC), 18 October 1963, E.T.S 35; Council of Europe, European Social Charter (Revised), 03 May 1996, E.T.S 163.
 
130
European Union, Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 26 October 2012, 2012/C 326/02. Published in the Official Journal of the European Communities, 18 December 2000 (2000/C 364/01). The Charter became legally binding when the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force on 1 Dec. 2009, as the Treaty confers on the Charter the same legal value as the Treaties.
 
131
Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union—Protocols—Annexes—Declarations annexed to the Final Act of the Intergovernmental Conference which adopted the Treaty of Lisbon, signed on 13 December 2007—Tables of equivalences Official Journal C 326, 26/10/2012 P 0001–0390; Article 78 1. “The Union shall develop a common policy on asylum, subsidiary protection and temporary protection with a view to offering appropriate status to any third-country national requiring international protection and ensuring compliance with the principle of non-refoulement. This policy must be in accordance with the Geneva Convention of 28 July 1951 and the Protocol of 31 January 1967 relating to the status of refugees, and other relevant treaties.”
 
132
More on the right to asylum explanations of the charter on the site of the EU Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) online at <https://​fra.​europa.​eu/​en/​charterpedia/​article/​18-right-asylum>.
 
133
Both the Qualifications Directive, Recital 50 and the Reception Conditions Directive, Recital 33 state: “In accordance with Articles 1, 2 and Article 4a(1) of the Protocol (No 21) on the position of the United Kingdom and Ireland in respect of the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice, annexed to the TEU and to the TFEU, and without prejudice to Article 4 of that Protocol, the United Kingdom and Ireland are not taking part in the adoption of this Directive and are not bound by it or subject to its application.” Both the Qualifications Directive, Recital 51, and the Reception Conditions Directive, Recital 34 state: “In accordance with Articles 1 and 2 of the Protocol (No 22) on the position of Denmark, annexed to the TEU and to the TFEU, Denmark is not taking part in the adoption of this Directive and is not bound by it or subject to its application.”
 
134
Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 April 2004 on minimum standards for the qualification and status of third country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as persons who otherwise need international protection and the content of the protection granted.
 
135
Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted [hereinafter QD Recast].
 
136
Recital (2) of QD, emphasis added.
 
137
Recital 17, QD.
 
138
Recital 16, QD.
 
139
Velluti (2014), p. 4.
 
140
Vedsted-Hansen (2011), pp. 255–271, 225.
 
141
A number of cases came from the ECJ and the EctHR concerning the QD provisions overall. Referring to non-discrimination between the categories reference was made in ECtHR, Niedzwiecki v. Germany, Application No. 58453/00 and ECtHR, Okpisz v. Germany Application No. 59140/00, 25 October 2005; UNHCR, Asylum in the European Union: The Study of the Implementation of the Qualification Directive, November 2007; ELENA, The Impact of the EU Qualification Directive on International Protection, October 2008, ELENA is the European Legal Network on Asylum coordinate by the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE); Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the ‘Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on minimum standards for the qualification and status of third country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection and the content of the protection granted’ (recast), 2011/C 18/14, point 4.7.; Di Marco (2015), p. 201.
 
142
European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on minimum standards for the qualification and status of third country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection and the content of the protection granted (Recast), COM (2009) 551 final/2, 23.10.2009 (“Recast Proposal”).
 
143
Velluti (2014), p. 52.
 
144
European Council on Refugees and Exiles, Comments from the European Council on Refugees and Exiles on the Commission Proposal to Recast the Qualification Directive, 12 March 2010, p. 4.
 
145
European Commission Brussels, 13.7.2016 COM(2016) 466 final 2016/0223 (COD) Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection and for the content of the protection granted and amending Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 concerning the status of third-country nationals who are long-term residents [hereinafter QR proposal].
 
146
QR proposal, p. 4.
 
147
Ibid, p. 5.
 
148
Article 2, QD.
 
149
Article 9, QD.
 
150
Article 10, QD.
 
151
Article 12, QD.
 
152
Art 2 (f), QD.
 
153
Article 15 (a–c), QD.
 
154
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), UNHCR Comments on the European Commission Proposal for a Regulation—COM (2016) 466, February 2018, p. 25 [hereinafter UNHCR comments on QR].
 
155
Articles 26–30 of QD and Articles 30–35 of QR. While the QD refers to social welfare in Article 29, the QR separates social security (Article 33) and social assistance (Article 34).
 
156
Pistoia (2018), p. 787.
 
157
Article 26 QD, Article 30 QR.
 
158
Article 27, QD and Article 31, QR.
 
159
Article 28, QD and Article 32, QR.
 
160
Article 29, QD and Article 34, QR.
 
161
UNHCR comments on QR, supra note 154, p. 39.
 
162
Article 37, QR.
 
163
Article 37 (2), QR.
 
164
Pistoia (2018).
 
165
Ibid, p. 785.
 
166
Article 34, QD; Article 38, QR. The QD refers to “integration facilities” while the QR refers to “integration measures”.
 
167
Article 34 (1), QR.
 
168
UNHCR comments on QR, supra note 154, p. 38.
 
169
European Union: Council of the European Union, Directive 2013/33/EU of the European Parliament and Council of 26 June 2013 laying down standards for the reception of applicants for international protection (recast), 29 June 2013, OJ L. 180/96-105/32; 29.6.2013, 2013/33/EU. This Directive was jointly adopted by the European Parliament and the European Council. It entered into force 20 July 2013, applied as of 21 July 2015.
 
170
European Union: Council of the European Union, Council Directive 2003/9/EC of 27 January 2003 Laying Down Minimum Standards for the Reception of Asylum Seekers in Member States, 6 February 2003, OJ L. 31/18-31/25; 6.2.2003, 2003/9/EC.
 
171
European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the laying down standards for the reception of applicants for international protection (recast) Brussels, 13.7.2016 COM(2016) 465 final 2016/0222 (COD) [hereinafter European Commission Proposal for RCD recast, 2016].
 
172
As stated in Recitals 9 and 10 of the RCD.
 
173
Article 15 (2).
 
174
Article 15(3) proposed RCD recast.
 
175
Article 21 of RCD becomes 20 in proposed RCD recast.
 
176
Article 20, proposed RCD recast.
 
177
Article 17 RCD, Article 16 (2) of proposed recast.
 
178
Article 17 (5) RCD, Article 16(6) of proposed recast.
 
179
Article 4.
 
180
Article 20 RCD, Article 19 of proposed recast.
 
181
Thorton (2014), p. 8.
 
182
Ibid.
 
183
Ibid, pp. 21–22; European Parliament legislative resolution of 07 May 2009 on the proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down minimum standards for the reception of asylum seekers (recast), [2010] O.J. C-212E/348 (05 August 2010); European Economic and Social Council, Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the RRCD, SOC/332 (16 July 2009) and Committee of the Regions, Opinion of the Committee of the Regions on the RRCD, CONST-IV-021 (5–7 October 2009).
 
184
Slingenberg (2014) (Kindle edition).
 
185
European Commission Proposal for RCD recast, 2016, supra note 171.
 
Literatur
Zurück zum Zitat Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh SA (1996) The Islamic conception of migration. Int Migr Rev Special Issue Ethics Migr Glob Stewardship 30(1):37–57 Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh SA (1996) The Islamic conception of migration. Int Migr Rev Special Issue Ethics Migr Glob Stewardship 30(1):37–57
Zurück zum Zitat Anderson B (2000) The origins of national consciousness. In: Hutchinson J, Smith AD (eds) Nationalism: critical concepts in political sciences, vol I. Routledge, London Anderson B (2000) The origins of national consciousness. In: Hutchinson J, Smith AD (eds) Nationalism: critical concepts in political sciences, vol I. Routledge, London
Zurück zum Zitat Appiah KA (2006) Cosmopolitanism: ethics in a world of strangers. W.W. Norton, New York Appiah KA (2006) Cosmopolitanism: ethics in a world of strangers. W.W. Norton, New York
Zurück zum Zitat Benhabib S (2004) The rights of others: aliens, residents and citizens. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 51CrossRef Benhabib S (2004) The rights of others: aliens, residents and citizens. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 51CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Brown GW (2010) The laws of hospitality, asylum seekers and cosmopolitan right: a Kantian response to Jacques Derrida. Eur J Polit Theory 9(3):308–327CrossRef Brown GW (2010) The laws of hospitality, asylum seekers and cosmopolitan right: a Kantian response to Jacques Derrida. Eur J Polit Theory 9(3):308–327CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Brubaker R (1996) Nationalism reframed: nationhood and the question in the new Europe. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeCrossRef Brubaker R (1996) Nationalism reframed: nationhood and the question in the new Europe. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cholewinski R (2004) Overview of social and economic rights of refugees and asylum seekers in Europe: international obligations – education and employment. Paper presented at ECRE conference on social and economic rights of refugees and asylum seekers, Odessa, Ukraine, 18–19 November 2004 Cholewinski R (2004) Overview of social and economic rights of refugees and asylum seekers in Europe: international obligations – education and employment. Paper presented at ECRE conference on social and economic rights of refugees and asylum seekers, Odessa, Ukraine, 18–19 November 2004
Zurück zum Zitat Craven M (1995) The International Covenant on economic, social, and cultural rights: perspective on its development. Oxford, Clarendon Press Craven M (1995) The International Covenant on economic, social, and cultural rights: perspective on its development. Oxford, Clarendon Press
Zurück zum Zitat Da Costa R (2006) Report for UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Rights of Refugees in the Context of Integration: Legal Standards and Recommendations, June 2006, POLAS/2006/02 Da Costa R (2006) Report for UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Rights of Refugees in the Context of Integration: Legal Standards and Recommendations, June 2006, POLAS/2006/02
Zurück zum Zitat Dent JA (1998) Research paper on the social and economic rights of non-nationals in Europe, prepared for the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE), November 1998, p 11 Dent JA (1998) Research paper on the social and economic rights of non-nationals in Europe, prepared for the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE), November 1998, p 11
Zurück zum Zitat Di Marco A (2015) The subsidiary protection: the discriminatory and limited protection of the “New Refugees”. Mediterranean J Hum Rights 20:201 Di Marco A (2015) The subsidiary protection: the discriminatory and limited protection of the “New Refugees”. Mediterranean J Hum Rights 20:201
Zurück zum Zitat Edwards A (2005) Human rights, refugees, and the right ‘To Enjoy’ asylum. Int J Refug Law 17(2):293–330CrossRef Edwards A (2005) Human rights, refugees, and the right ‘To Enjoy’ asylum. Int J Refug Law 17(2):293–330CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Fredman S (2001) Discrimination law. Oxford, Oxford University Press, p 66 Fredman S (2001) Discrimination law. Oxford, Oxford University Press, p 66
Zurück zum Zitat Fredman S (2008) Human rights transformed: positive rights and positive duties. Oxford University Press, OxfordCrossRef Fredman S (2008) Human rights transformed: positive rights and positive duties. Oxford University Press, OxfordCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Fredman S (2011a) Discrimination law, 2nd edn, Clarendon Law Series. Oxford University Press, p 5 Fredman S (2011a) Discrimination law, 2nd edn, Clarendon Law Series. Oxford University Press, p 5
Zurück zum Zitat Fredman S (2011b) Discrimination law, 2nd edn. Oxford, Oxford University Press, p 14 Fredman S (2011b) Discrimination law, 2nd edn. Oxford, Oxford University Press, p 14
Zurück zum Zitat Fredman S (2016) Substantive equality revisited. Int J Constitut Law 14(3):712–738CrossRef Fredman S (2016) Substantive equality revisited. Int J Constitut Law 14(3):712–738CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Gellner E (1983) Nations and nationalism. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford Gellner E (1983) Nations and nationalism. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford
Zurück zum Zitat Goldman RK, Martin SM (1983) International legal standards relating to the rights of aliens and refugees and United States immigration law. Hum Rights Q 5(3):302CrossRef Goldman RK, Martin SM (1983) International legal standards relating to the rights of aliens and refugees and United States immigration law. Hum Rights Q 5(3):302CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Goodwin-Gill G, McAdam J (2007) The refugee in international law, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, pp 525–526 Goodwin-Gill G, McAdam J (2007) The refugee in international law, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, pp 525–526
Zurück zum Zitat Grahl-Madsen A (1972) The status of refugees in international law, vol II. A.W. Sijtohoff-Leyden, p 374 Grahl-Madsen A (1972) The status of refugees in international law, vol II. A.W. Sijtohoff-Leyden, p 374
Zurück zum Zitat Greenberg M (1959) The biblical conception of asylum. J Biblic Lit 78(2):125–132CrossRef Greenberg M (1959) The biblical conception of asylum. J Biblic Lit 78(2):125–132CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Hathaway JC (2005) The international rights of refugees under international law. Cambridge University Press, p 465 Hathaway JC (2005) The international rights of refugees under international law. Cambridge University Press, p 465
Zurück zum Zitat Hearn J (2006) Rethinking nationalism; a critical introduction. Palgrave Macmillan, New York Hearn J (2006) Rethinking nationalism; a critical introduction. Palgrave Macmillan, New York
Zurück zum Zitat Hohmann J (2013) The right to housing: laws, concepts, possibilities. Hart, Oxford, p 167 Hohmann J (2013) The right to housing: laws, concepts, possibilities. Hart, Oxford, p 167
Zurück zum Zitat Kant E (2002) Perpetual peace. Cosimo Classics Philosophy Kant E (2002) Perpetual peace. Cosimo Classics Philosophy
Zurück zum Zitat Kapferer S (2008) Article 14 (2) of the universal declaration of human rights and exclusion from international refugee protection. Refug Surv Q 27(3):53–75 Kapferer S (2008) Article 14 (2) of the universal declaration of human rights and exclusion from international refugee protection. Refug Surv Q 27(3):53–75
Zurück zum Zitat Kirkwood S, Goodman S, McVittie C, McKinlay A (2016) Asylum-seekers and the right to work. In: The language of asylum. Palgrave Macmillan, LondonCrossRef Kirkwood S, Goodman S, McVittie C, McKinlay A (2016) Asylum-seekers and the right to work. In: The language of asylum. Palgrave Macmillan, LondonCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Kleingeld P (2012) Kant and cosmopolitanism: the philosophical ideal of world citizenship. Cambridge University Press Kleingeld P (2012) Kant and cosmopolitanism: the philosophical ideal of world citizenship. Cambridge University Press
Zurück zum Zitat McCrudden C (2004) Equality and discrimination. In: Feldman D (ed) English public law. Oxford University Press, Oxford McCrudden C (2004) Equality and discrimination. In: Feldman D (ed) English public law. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Zurück zum Zitat Pastore F, Henry G (2016) Explaining the crisis of the European migration and asylum regime. Int Spectator 51(1):44–57CrossRef Pastore F, Henry G (2016) Explaining the crisis of the European migration and asylum regime. Int Spectator 51(1):44–57CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Pistoia E (2018) Social integration of refugees and asylum-seekers through the exercise of socio-economic rights in European law. Eur Papers 3(2):781–807 Pistoia E (2018) Social integration of refugees and asylum-seekers through the exercise of socio-economic rights in European law. Eur Papers 3(2):781–807
Zurück zum Zitat Plender R, Mole N (1999) Beyond the Geneva Convention: constructing a de facto right of asylum from international human rights instruments. In: Nicholson F, Twomey P (eds) Refugee rights and realities: evolving international concepts and regimes. Cambridge University Press, p 81 Plender R, Mole N (1999) Beyond the Geneva Convention: constructing a de facto right of asylum from international human rights instruments. In: Nicholson F, Twomey P (eds) Refugee rights and realities: evolving international concepts and regimes. Cambridge University Press, p 81
Zurück zum Zitat Ratjen S, Satija M (2014) Realizing economic, social and cultural rights for all. In: Riedel E, Giacca G, Golay C (eds) Economic, social and cultural rights in international law: contemporary issues and challenges. Oxford University Press, Oxford Ratjen S, Satija M (2014) Realizing economic, social and cultural rights for all. In: Riedel E, Giacca G, Golay C (eds) Economic, social and cultural rights in international law: contemporary issues and challenges. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Zurück zum Zitat Saul B, Kinley D, Mowbray J (2014) The International Covenant on economic, social and cultural rights: commentary, cases and materials. Oxford University Press, pp 315–316 Saul B, Kinley D, Mowbray J (2014) The International Covenant on economic, social and cultural rights: commentary, cases and materials. Oxford University Press, pp 315–316
Zurück zum Zitat Sen A (1995) Inequality re-examined. Oxford, Clarendon, p 1 Sen A (1995) Inequality re-examined. Oxford, Clarendon, p 1
Zurück zum Zitat Sen A (1997) Inequality, unemployment and contemporary Europe. Int Labour Rev 136(2):156–171 Sen A (1997) Inequality, unemployment and contemporary Europe. Int Labour Rev 136(2):156–171
Zurück zum Zitat Shiek D, Waddington L, Bell M (2007) Cases, materials and text on national, supranational and international non-discrimination law. Hart Publishing, p 57 Shiek D, Waddington L, Bell M (2007) Cases, materials and text on national, supranational and international non-discrimination law. Hart Publishing, p 57
Zurück zum Zitat Slingenberg L (2014) The reception of asylum seekers under international law: between sovereignty and equality (Studies in international law book 51), 1st edn. Hart Publishing Slingenberg L (2014) The reception of asylum seekers under international law: between sovereignty and equality (Studies in international law book 51), 1st edn. Hart Publishing
Zurück zum Zitat Stackert J (2006) Why does Deuteronomy Legislate cities of refuge? Asylum in the covenant collection (Exodus 21:12-14) and Deuteronomy (19:1-13). J Biblic Lit 125(1):23–49CrossRef Stackert J (2006) Why does Deuteronomy Legislate cities of refuge? Asylum in the covenant collection (Exodus 21:12-14) and Deuteronomy (19:1-13). J Biblic Lit 125(1):23–49CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Thorton L (2014) Law, dignity and socio-economic rights: the case of asylum seekers in Europe. Draft paper for forthcoming book: The socio-economic rights of asylum seekers in economic rights of asylum seekers in international and European law, a version presented at The European Database of Asylum Law Conference (EDAL) January 2014, p 8 Thorton L (2014) Law, dignity and socio-economic rights: the case of asylum seekers in Europe. Draft paper for forthcoming book: The socio-economic rights of asylum seekers in economic rights of asylum seekers in international and European law, a version presented at The European Database of Asylum Law Conference (EDAL) January 2014, p 8
Zurück zum Zitat Van Hooft S (2009) Cosmopolitanism: philosophy for global ethics. Routledge, New York Van Hooft S (2009) Cosmopolitanism: philosophy for global ethics. Routledge, New York
Zurück zum Zitat Vedsted-Hansen J (2011) Common EU standards on asylum – optional harmonization and exclusive procedures? In: Guild E, Minderhoud P (eds) The first decade of EU migration and asylum law. Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden, pp 255–271, 225 Vedsted-Hansen J (2011) Common EU standards on asylum – optional harmonization and exclusive procedures? In: Guild E, Minderhoud P (eds) The first decade of EU migration and asylum law. Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden, pp 255–271, 225
Zurück zum Zitat Velluti S (2014) Reforming the common European asylum system — legislative developments and judicial activism of the European Courts. Springer, Heidelberg, p 4CrossRef Velluti S (2014) Reforming the common European asylum system — legislative developments and judicial activism of the European Courts. Springer, Heidelberg, p 4CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Weiss N (2012) Integration, aliens. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. Oxford University Press Weiss N (2012) Integration, aliens. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. Oxford University Press
Zurück zum Zitat Weissbrodt D, Divine M (2012) International human rights of migration. In: Opeskin B, Perruchoud R, Redpath-Cross J (eds) Foundations of international migration law. Cambridge University Press Weissbrodt D, Divine M (2012) International human rights of migration. In: Opeskin B, Perruchoud R, Redpath-Cross J (eds) Foundations of international migration law. Cambridge University Press
Zurück zum Zitat Wimmer A, Feinstein Y (2010) The rise of the nation-state across the world, 1816 to 2001. Am Sociol Rev 75(5):764–790CrossRef Wimmer A, Feinstein Y (2010) The rise of the nation-state across the world, 1816 to 2001. Am Sociol Rev 75(5):764–790CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Winkler IT, Mahler C (2013) Interpreting the right to a dignified minimum existence: a new era in German socio-economic rights jurisprudence? Hum Rights Law Rev 13(2):388–401CrossRef Winkler IT, Mahler C (2013) Interpreting the right to a dignified minimum existence: a new era in German socio-economic rights jurisprudence? Hum Rights Law Rev 13(2):388–401CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Zaat K (2007) The protection of forced migrants in Islamic law. UNHCR new issues in refugee research. Research paper no. 146 Zaat K (2007) The protection of forced migrants in Islamic law. UNHCR new issues in refugee research. Research paper no. 146
Zurück zum Zitat Zimmerman A (ed) (2011) The 1951 Convention relating to the status of refugees and its 1967 protocol: a commentary. Oxford University Press, Oxford, p 1048 Zimmerman A (ed) (2011) The 1951 Convention relating to the status of refugees and its 1967 protocol: a commentary. Oxford University Press, Oxford, p 1048
Metadaten
Titel
Rights of Asylum: Overview of International and European Laws Concerning Inclusion and Exclusion
verfasst von
Magdalena Smieszek
Copyright-Jahr
2021
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74413-7_2