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2000 | Buch | 2. Auflage

Basin Classification and Depositional Environments (Overview) Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

Sedimentary Basins

Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget

verfasst von: Professor Dr. Gerhard Einsele

Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg

Enthalten in: Professional Book Archive

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Über dieses Buch

The modem geological sciences are characterized by extraordinarily rapid prog­ ress, as well as by the development and application of numerous new and refined methods, most of them handling an enormous amount of data available from all the continents and oceans. Given this state of affairs, it searns inevitable that rnany students and profes­ sionals tend to become experts in relatively narrow fields and thereby are in danger of losing a broad view of current knowledge. The abundance of new books and symposium volumes testifies to this trend toward specialization. However, many geologie processes are complex and result from the interaction of many, seemingly unrelated, individual factors. This signifies that we still need generalists who have the broad overview and are able to evaluate the great variety of factors and pro­ ces ses controlling a geologie system, such as a sedimentary basin. In addition, this also means that cooperation with other disciplines in the natural sciences and engi­ neering is increasingly important. Modem text books providing this broad overview of the earth sciences are rare.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Types of Sedimentary Basins

Frontmatter
1. Basin Classification and Depositional Environments (Overview)
Abstract
Sedimentary basins are, in a very broad sense, all those areas in which sediments can accumulate to considerable thickness and be preserved for long geological time periods. In addition, there also exist areas of longpersisting denudation, as well as regions where erosional and depositional processes more or less neutralize each other (creating what is known as non-deposition or omission).
Gerhard Einsele

Depositional Systems and Facies Models

Frontmatter
2. Continental Sediments
Abstract
Glaciers produce and effect numerous types of both continental and marine sediments. From present-day glaciated and periglacial regions we know a great variety of features characteristic of glacial environments, including many minor structures and patterns which can be observed at or near the land surface. Therefore it is barely possible to summarize all these phenomena in a few simple facies models.
Gerhard Einsele
3. Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments (Including Carbonates)
Abstract
Beach processes and, in a broader sense also coastal and shelf processes, are controlled predominantly by wind waves, tidal waves, and wave-generated currents. In this Section, wind waves and wind-generated currents of the coastal zone, generating wavedominated shorelines, are briefly discussed.
Gerhard Einsele
4. Sediments of Adjacent Seas and Estuaries
Abstract
The ocean basins are the ultimate sink for all the material transported by rivers or blown by winds into the sea. In addition, the oceans produce large quantities of autochthonous biogenic material. In their areal extent, the sediments of the present-day deep ocean basins surpass by far all the other sedimentary environments. Even measured by volume and for a certain time slice, deep-sea sediments have presumably predominated over other sediment types, for example shelf deposits, for the last millions of years. However, in the ancient record, a large proportion of former deep-sea sediments is missing (cf. Sect. 11.7). They were either subducted at convergent plate margins, or incorporated into accretionary prisms and orogenic belts and partially transformed into metamorphic rocks. After uplift, most of these rocks were eroded. Nevertheless, even in ancient rock sequences exposed on the continents, nonmetamorphic deep-sea sediments play a significant part. Their identification and interpretation are an important objective in basin studies and paleogeographic reconstructions.
Gerhard Einsele
5. Oceanic Sediments
Abstract
The ocean basins are the ultimate sink for all the material transported by rivers or blown by winds into the sea. In addition, the oceans produce large quantities of autochthonous biogenic material. In their areal extent, the sediments of the present-day deep ocean basins surpass by far all the other sedimentary environments. Even measured by volume and for a certain time slice, deep-sea sediments have presumably predominated over other sediment types, for example shelf deposits, for the last millions of years. However, in the ancient record, a large proportion of former deep-sea sediments is missing (cf. Sect. 11.7). They were either subducted at convergent plate margins, or incorporated into accretionary prisms and orogenic belts and partially transformed into metamorphic rocks. After uplift, most of these rocks were eroded. Nevertheless, even in ancient rock sequences exposed on the continents, nonmetamorphic deep-sea sediments play a significant part. Their identification and interpretation are an important objective in basin studies and paleogeographic reconstructions.
Gerhard Einsele
6. Special Depositional Environments and Sediments
Abstract
Sediments greenish in color are fairly common in the present-day oceans at various water depths. They are also frequently observed in ancient sediments, but in these cases the minerals causing the green color may differ from those found in young sediments due to diagenesis. The correct identification, crystallographic and geochemical characterization of finegrained green minerals is difficult and can be done only in the laboratory using special methods in clay mineralogy. For simple rock descriptions in the field, barely more than the greenish color can be noted, which in turn may be modified by other sediment components such as organic matter and fine-grained particles of different composition.
Gerhard Einsele
7. Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy
Abstract
Many sedimentary sections exhibit a kind of rhythmicity due to regularly alternating beds traceable over long distances, or a repetition of larger units which are referred to as sedimentary sequences or cycles. Rhythmic and cyclic sequences occur worldwide on various scales in presumably every environmental and stratigraphic system.
Gerhard Einsele

Subsidence, Flux Rates, and Sediment Budget

Frontmatter
8. Subsidence
Abstract
Substantial sediment accumulation and the formation of sedimentary basins result from crustal subsidence. At least in the beginning of basin formation, tectonic subsidence must predate sedimentation, whereas later, subsidence may also be actively driven by an increasing sediment load (total subsidence). In this chapter, the different mechanisms leading to crustal subsidence as well as some models quantifying the development of subsidence versus time, i.e., subsidence history curves, are briefly introduced.
Gerhard Einsele
9. Denudation: Solute Transport and Flux Rates of Terrigenous Sediment
Abstract
Most of the sediment deposited in sedimentary basins is derived from land areas exposed to subaerial weathering. This is, to some extent, also true for biogenic and chemical sediments, insofar as their production depends on the dissolved river load delivered into the sedimentary basins. The land-derived, solid material is usually referred to as the terrigenous, allochthonous, clastic component of a sedimentary deposit.
Gerhard Einsele
10. Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter in Various Depositional Environments
Abstract
It has become common in the sedimentological literature to distinguish between (linear) sedimentation rates, SR (sediment thickness per unit time), and accumulation rates, AR (solid sediment mass per unit area and time). This discrimination is important when sediments of different porosities are compared, and it is indispensable for any kind of sediment budget. In papers dealing with relatively young sediments of high porosity, for example sediment cores recovered by scientific ocean drilling, mostly accumulation rates are used (e.g., Van Andel 1983; Ehrmann and Thiede 1985).
Gerhard Einsele
11. The Interplay Between Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill
Abstract
The filling of sedimentary basins and the architecture and facies associations of their sediments are generally controlled by the interaction between several more or less independent factors (cf. Chaps. 7 and 9), including:
  • Size and denudation characteristics (specific sediment yield) of land areas delivering terrigenous sediments.
  • Areal extent and geometry of the corresponding basin receiving sediment.
  • Biogenic sediment production in the basin itself.
  • Tectonic and total subsidence of basin floor as well as compaction of sediments.
  • Distribution of sediments in relation to the hydraulic regime of the water-filled basin or, on land, of the river system crossing and feeding the basin with sediment.
  • Relative sea-level or base-level changes and their frequencies and amplitudes.
Gerhard Einsele

Basin Evolution

Frontmatter
12. Basin Evolution and Sediments
Abstract
Basin evolution is a very broad interdisciplinary and complex topic in earth sciences. To study and understand basin evolution, the cooperation of geophysicists, structural geologists, stratigraphers, and sedimentary geologists is needed. In addition, petroleum geologists contribute considerably to our knowledge about basin evolution. Having in mind the fact that some hundred to thousand sedimentary basins, young and ancient, exist all over the world, it is obvious that even a series of volumes would be required to describe the most important evolutionary trends of all these basins. Many basins have been studied in some detail, and it is evident that each basin has some characteristic, individual features. In other words, the evolution of a certain sedimentary basin can never be described adequately by an idealized type basin. On the other hand, a limited number of type basins is needed for a better understanding of the true nature of the basin under investigation.
Gerhard Einsele

Diagenesis and Fluid Flow

Frontmatter
13. Mechanical and Chemical Diagenesis
Abstract
Freshly deposited sediments are commonly unconsolidated, have a relatively low bulk density and high permeability and, if accumulated under water, a high water content. However, with increasing burial depth under younger sediments, and occasionally shortly after deposition, the sediments become denser and more solid or lithified. All the processes involved in such a change of sediment state are summarized under the term diagenesis. It comprises both mechanical and chemical-mineralogical processes.
Gerhard Einsele
14. Hydrocarbons and Coal
Abstract
The source rocks, the generation and migration of hydrocarbons and their exploration and production are a very broad and extensive topic. Here, a few basic principles and processes are briefly introduced.
Gerhard Einsele
Backmatter
Metadaten
Titel
Sedimentary Basins
verfasst von
Professor Dr. Gerhard Einsele
Copyright-Jahr
2000
Verlag
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Electronic ISBN
978-3-662-04029-4
Print ISBN
978-3-642-08544-4
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-04029-4