Soil and Recycling Management in the Anthropocene Era

This chapter discusses the various wastewater treatment processes for the removal of nitrogen emissions from the plastic compounds present in municipal landfill leachate. The chapter briefs on the types of plastics and the means of plastic degradation that result in the emission of nitrogen into the waste stream and also describe the major state of the art of some of the most common biological processes such as Partial nitrification process, Anaerobic ammonia oxidation (ANAMMOX) , Completely autotrophic nitrogen removal over nitrite (CANON) , NO_x process and Oxygen-limited nitrification and denitrification (OLAND) process were discussed. In addition, conventional physicochemical methods such as break-point chlorination, ion exchange, membrane processes, precipitation and stripping are also summarized. Also, this chapter reviewed on the future challenges and perceptions on the mitigation of the nitrogen contamination by using advanced sustainable and eco-friendly plastic resources.

Viruses need a host for replication. In a hectare grassland, for example, a huge amount of diverse cells, majorly microbial cells are present, in which viral inserts replicate either lysogenically with the host genome or lytically after reprogramming the host metabolism towards virus particle production. A third replication mode is “chronic extrusion”. Thereby single stranded (ss) viral DNA is channelled through the cytoplasmic membrane into the surrounding environment and double stranded DNA (ds) reintegrates in new host genomes. During lytic virus replication the host cell bursts. The produced virus particles, now termed virions, and the cell nutrients are released and potential pro- and eukaryotic hosts are attracted. In a nutrient enriched environment virions find easier a new genome for reintegrating by using their inherent infectivity and autoinduced quorum-sensing. After having entered a new host lysogenic, lytic replication switching starts. During “chronic extrusion” and lytic replication cycles set free virions can absorb epigenetic information, which then may be spread by horizontal gene transfers. Lysogenic, lytic replication switchings, termed viral shunts, are temperate. Host cell multiplication regulator, carefully controlled in nature. Assumed 1% of the wealth of host cells in a hectare grassland burst lytic virus replication mediated a significant influence on the gross primary production (GPP) is inevitable. Epigenetic genetic information exchanges may improve host’s health and correspondingly the focus of this chapter lies on virus mediated nutrient side drain estimates, calculated in their importance for a hectare grassland.

Paddy ecosystem naturally serves as a micro-habitat for diversified soil microbiome and its oxic-anoxic interface is the hub of multiple bio-geochemical cycles. However, in the Anthropocene era, paddy fields are not exempted from vigorous human interventions. On one hand the cropping of short duration high yielding varieties requiring high nutrient inputs and the other specifically, the heavy dosage of nitrogen inputs often extremely higher than the recommended dose. Furthermore, the inefficient agricultural practices lead to loss of applied N through volatilization, leaching, and low nitrogen use efficiency. In all the cases, imbalance in N level instantly alters the diversity of N-dependent bacterial and archaeal populations. Asia contributes to 90% of global rice production and many of its agricultural lands are constantly occupied with year-round paddy crops for decades. In such areas, prolonged imbalance in N might have a serious impact on soil microbiome subsequently collapsing the natural N transformations in the paddy ecosystem. The abundance of N transforming microbes such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria, ammonia-oxidizing bacteria/archaea, nitrite oxidizers, nitrate oxidizers, denitrifying bacteria, and anaerobic ammonia oxidizers are the key players in sustainable paddy cultivation. Planning a balanced N fertilization certainly helps in proper maintenance of soil health to ensure persistent crop production and sustainability. Hence, a detailed understanding of the adverse impact of higher and sub-optimal dosage of N fertilizers on paddy microbiome is critical. This chapter details the importance of microbial-mediated N transformations in paddy ecosystem followed by the impact of imbalanced N fertilization over soil microbial abundance and the soil health thereof.

The world demand for nitrogen (N) fertilizer increases since Haber and Bosch’s invention of technical nitrogen fixation (TNF) with an average growth of 1.9% per annum or an amount of 117.116 tons N in 2019 (FAO in World Fertilizer Trends and Outlook to 2020, 2017, [34]). Landscapes not only receive TNF, but also the wastes from industrial livestock farming, an increasing industrialisation, a growing population and from overloading wastewater treatment plants by the production of sewage sludge. Thus, the administration is forced to handle and for instance the German capital Berlin hired 14.364 ha land in 1913 and installed a sewage farm for spreading Berlin’s wastewater. In 1926, the amount of heavy-metal polluted wastewater produced by Berlin’s industry was 7.3%. In 1988, still 34% of all accruing wastewater was spread on the fields [61]. From Berlin’s nutrient over satiated sewage farm soil, alarming amounts of nitrate flew into nearby glacial valley wells, surface waters and riverbank filtrates, which are used as drinking water sources and thus, in 1988 the wastewater spreading on the sewage farm stopped. Synthetic biology is a promising approach to reduce soil N buffer capacity over satiating concentrations. The possibilities of synthetic biology techniques in the focus of this chapter are discussed towards curing N recycling related impacts on health, soil management and wasterwater treatment plants.

The major agricultural challenges in the developing world are in ensuring food and nutritional security, improving soil health and maintaining environmental quality. Reduced usage of organics, imbalanced fertilizer use, inherent soil constraints and emerging nutrient deficiencies are the major contributors of poor soil health. The hotspots of N fertilizer application have shifted from the USA and Western Europe in the 1960s to eastern Asia in the early 21st century thus bringing soil sustainability concerns. Simultaneously, the interest in low external inputs or organic agriculture has increased. This review presents some the important lessons learnt in precision chemical fertilization and organic fertilization effects on productivity and soil health. Both approaches provide solutions to ensure improved fertilizer use efficiency in the short-term and maintain soil fertility in the long term. But organic farming generally lacks the potential for a short-term on-the-go reaction especially with respect to fertilizer application. It is argued that organo-mineral precision fertilization has the advantages of nutrient supply in sufficient quantities, nutrient efficiency and soil health improvement. Organo-mineral precision fertilization (OM-PF) requires long term research on nutrient availability, crop yields, effects on soil biology and fertility.