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Erschienen in:
Natural Resources and Energy Regulation in Australia: The Energy White Paper in Context Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

2016 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

12. Special Agreements and Energy: Filling the Gaps

verfasst von : Michael Hahn, Kateryna Holzer

Erschienen in: Emerging Issues in Sustainable Development

Verlag: Springer Japan

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Abstract

This chapter examines the patchwork of regulatory responses in the field of trade and investment to the current energy challenges and reflects on the recent developments in relevant international fora in terms of their ability to take the regulatory framework for energy a step further in serving the needs of sustainable energy access for all.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Putting Limits on Extra-Territorial Coverage of Competition Laws in the Age of Global Supply Chains: Comparison of the US and Japan
Nächstes Kapitel Energy Charter Treaty: Standing Out Beside the WTO
Fußnoten
1
Se4all (2015).
 
2
IPCC (2014), pp. 708–709.
 
3
See SDG 7 in United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) Resolution A/RES/70/ ‘Transforming Our World: The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda’, adopted on 25 September 2015.
 
4
IEA (2013), p 15.
 
5
UNGA Res A/RES/70/1 of 25 September 2015 ‘Transforming Our World: The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda’.
 
6
This is particularly true for the EU. See EU (2015).
 
7
Gudas (2015).
 
8
Schmidt et al. (2013).
 
9
See e.g. Leal-Arcas et al. (2014), pp. 82–85.
 
10
IEA (2012), p. 538.
 
11
For instance, the current problem of energy security in Europe requires huge investments in redesigning natural gas infrastructure and constructing export and import liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminals. See Espa and Holzer (2015), pp. 372–374.
 
12
The need for construction of cross-border transmission lines is particularly urgent in sub-Saharan Africa in light of the development of large-scale hydropower projects in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya and Mozambique carrying great potential for electricity supply in the whole region of Central and Eastern Africa. See IEA (2014), p. 14.
 
13
OECD (2015), p. 23 ff.
 
14
In ‘A Framework Strategy for a Resilient Energy Union with a Forward-Looking Climate Change Policy’, adopted by the EU Commission on 25 February 2015, free flow of energy across borders is viewed as a fifth freedom of the EU, along with the free movement of goods, services, persons and capital.
 
15
Lowe et al. (2007), p. 24.
 
16
Ibid.
 
17
For example, third parties are allowed to invest in the electricity transmission lines and become eligible for regulated revenues in the EU, Australia and some US states (e.g. Hawaii), subject to certain conditions, such as the obligation to integrate renewable energy into the power production or the contribution to energy security. See Gudas (2015).
 
18
EU Regulation 714/2009 on conditions for access to the network for cross-border exchanges in electricity.
 
19
EU Regulation 1316/2013 establishing the Connecting Europe Facility, OJ L 348, 20.12.2013.
 
20
EU Regulation 347/2013 on guidelines for trans-European energy infrastructure, 17.04.2013.
 
21
Reith et al. (2012), p. 22.
 
22
See e.g. Schmidt et al. (2013), pp. 90–91.
 
23
Talus (2014), pp. 7–8.
 
24
Cottier (2014), pp. 40–41.
 
25
Institutions contributing to international energy cooperation and the development of global energy governance are as diverse as the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the International Energy Agency (IEA), International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the World Trade Organization, the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). See Leal-Arcas et al. (2014), pp. 24–25.
 
26
Signed in 1994 and entered into force in 1998, the ECT unites energy-producing, energy-consuming and energy-transiting states from all over the world, with some of them having an observer status.
 
27
Marceau (2012), pp. 385–389. See also Howse (2009), p. 3.
 
28
Luo Xing et al. (2015), pp. 513 ff.
 
29
Some WTO members have also made tariff concessions for energy commodities, including electricity (HS 2716).
 
30
While quantitative restrictions on trade is prohibited under Art. XI GATT, it is difficult to extend this prohibition to OPEC quotas concerning goods (oil) at the extraction (production) stage.
 
31
See e.g. Appellate Body Report, Canada-Renewable Energy, WT/DS412/AB/R, adopted on 24 May 2013.
 
32
See e.g. Howse (2009), p. 15.
 
33
Holzer et al. (2016).
 
34
Appellate Body Report, Canada-Renewable Energy, WT/DS412/AB/R, adopted on 24 May 2013.
 
35
Panel Report, India —Solar Cells, WT/DS456/R, circulated on 24 February 2016.
 
36
Pierson (2015).
 
37
Meyer (2013).
 
38
Under Art. V:2 GATT, ‘(t)here shall be freedom of transit through the territory of each contracting party, via the routes most convenient for international transit, for traffic in transit to or from the territory of other contracting parties. No distinction shall be made which is based on the flag of vessels, the place of origin, departure, entry, exit or destination, or on any circumstances relating to the ownership of goods, of vessels or of other means of transport’.
 
39
See e.g. Yanovich (2011), pp. 26–27; Cossy (2010), p. 115.
 
40
TFA contains no energy-specific provisions.
 
41
See e.g. Ehring and Selivanova (2011), p. 81, concluding that ‘the issue of construction of new transit capacity is not tackled by the GATT 1994’.
 
42
Under Articles 2 and 3, contracting parties undertake to promote long-term cooperation in the energy field and develop an open and competitive market for energy materials and products.
 
43
For instance, the Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Related Environmental Aspects (PEEREA) reinforces the commitment to undertake a good faith effort to minimize harmful environmental impacts resulting from the energy cycle. It promotes the use of market-based instruments, aiming at internalizing the full costs of the energy cycle into relevant pricing decisions. PEEREA requires its signatories to develop energy efficiency strategies and follow up on the implementation.
 
44
ECT Art. 1(5) and (6).
 
45
This pre-authorization stage was meant to be covered by a follow-up Supplementary Treaty. See Selivanova (2011), p. 383.
 
46
This also includes the right to selectively earmark only certain parts of its territory for exploration and development of its energy resources, determine the conditions pursuant to which exploration and exploitation are permitted, and set the environmental and safety standards as energy producing countries deem acceptable. See Art. 18 ECT.
 
47
ECT Art. 26 (2). See also Ruff et al. (2014).
 
48
PCA Case No. AA 227, final award of 18 July 2014.
 
49
Spain’s Supreme Tribunal case no. 062/2012, with award rendered on 21.01.2016.
 
50
See Trade Amendment of 1998, Annex EQ I.
 
51
It should be noted that in those cases, where a dispute over energy trade matters arises between ECT contracting parties, of which at least one is a non-WTO member, the ECT provides for its own state-to-state dispute settlement. However, if all parties to a dispute are WTO members, such a dispute must be resolved at the WTO. See Selivanova (2011), p. 379.
 
52
Ehring and Selivanova (2011), pp. 84–86.
 
53
Ibid.
 
54
Wälde and Gunst (2002), pp. 209–211. It should be mentioned that to some extent the absence of the TPA obligation is mitigated by non-discrimination rules imposed on state owned energy enterprises (energy monopolies). Pursuant to Art. 22, ECT parties may not encourage or require their state enterprises to engage in practices inconsistent with any other ECT obligation of that contracting party, such as encouraging or requiring to charge a higher transit fee to foreign pipeline users. Moreover, ECT parties have to ensure that their state enterprises respect the investment-related Treaty provisions when they sell or otherwise provide goods and services. State enterprises are obliged, for instance, to supply natural gas or electricity to foreign investors at prices no higher than those charged to domestic companies.
 
55
Cf. UNGA Res 626 (VII) of 21 December 1952 (‘sovereignty of any state over its natural resources’) and the famous UNGA Res 1803 (XVII) of 14 December 1962 on ‘Permanent sovereignty over natural resources’ pursuant to which the ‘right of peoples and nations to permanent sovereignty over their natural wealth and resources must be exercised in the interest of their national development and of the well-being of the people of the State concerned.’
 
56
Selivanova (2011).
 
57
Negotiations ended in 2011 without signing.
 
58
Art. 2 of draft Energy Transit Protocol. See Ehring and Selivanova (2011), p. 96, fn. 162.
 
59
Furthermore, various safeguards are foreseen to prevent the interruption of transit.
 
60
APEC consists of 21 countries of the Pacific Rim including the US, China, Japan, Australia and Russia.
 
61
See Annex C ‘APEC List of Environmental Goods’ of the 2012 APEC Leaders’ Declaration signed on 8–9 Sept. 2012 in Vladivostok. This initiative of APEC countries has been without prejudice to their positions in the WTO.
 
62
See Joint Statement Regarding Trade in Environmental Goods, 24 January 2014 at Davos, Switzerland. The negotiations were later joined by Israel and Turkey, so that currently the total number of negotiating countries is 17.
 
63
Para 31 (iii) DDA.
 
64
What constitutes the critical mass is nowhere defined, but it is usually understood to constitute 90 % of all trade volumes in the negotiated area of trade. See Goff (2015).
 
65
See ‘Environmental goods agreement trade talks stall ahead of Nairobi ministerial’, Bridges, 9 December 2015. There has also been a debate in the WTO on what constitutes an environmental good and an environmental service. The questions that have been asked include: How to account for dual use of products? Should goods produced using “cleaner” processes be considered environmental? How to catch up with rapid technological changes that require corrections in the list based on HS for goods or W/120 for services classification? For more on this, see Cottier and Baracol (2009).
 
66
The HS of the World Customs Organisation serves as the basis for schedules of tariff concessions of WTO members. See Appellate Body Report, EC-Chicken Cuts, WT/DS269/AB/R, adopted on 27 September 2005, para. 199.
 
67
Ibid.
 
68
ITA currently includes 81 WTO member countries.
 
69
USTR (2015). One example is a tariff on energy-efficient lighting, which in India constitutes 30 % (and nontariff barrier to it is equivalent to 106 %). See Goff (2015), p. 6.
 
70
Vermulst and Meng (2016).
 
71
Goff, p. 6.
 
72
USTR (2015).
 
73
The role of ECT has been weakened by the Ukraine-Russian gas conflict and the subsequent retreat of Russia, as well as the lack of progress with regard to several envisaged side agreements, such as the one on transit, environmental aspects and technology.
 
74
ECT (2015).
 
75
Cooperation in the energy sector is part of regional integration within the South African Development Community (SADC). To increase power accessibility and facilitate the integration of RE sources, nine member states of SADC have merged their electricity grids into the Southern African Power Pool (SAPP). Despite these efforts, the scale of electricity trade within SAPP remains small leading to continuing inefficiencies in the distribution of electricity in the region. See Uddin and Taplin (2015), p. 500.
 
76
See Art. 18 ECT and Art. 601 NAFTA, respectively.
 
77
EU (2013).
 
78
Espa and Holzer (2015).
 
79
Ibid.
 
80
EU (2013).
 
81
Security of supply is addressed by the International Energy Agency (IEA), currently comprising of 29 developed countries. Under the IEA’s Coordinated Emergency Response Mechanism, oil stocks of IEA member states are kept at the amount equivalent to at least 90 days of net oil imports. See Leal-Arcas et al. (2014), p. 43.
 
82
Hahn, M (2006).
 
83
Whereas the EU has internally subjected decisions on cultural goods to a different voting procedure (Art. 207 (4) TFEU), it has a priori excluded them from commitments in its free trade agreements.
 
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Cottier, T., & Baracol, D. (2009). WTO negotiations on environmental goods and services: A potential contribution to the millennium development goals (UNCTAD).
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Metadaten
Titel
Special Agreements and Energy: Filling the Gaps
verfasst von
Michael Hahn
Kateryna Holzer
Copyright-Jahr
2016
Verlag
Springer Japan
Buch
Emerging Issues in Sustainable Development

Print ISBN: 978-4-431-56424-9

Electronic ISBN: 978-4-431-56426-3

Copyright-Jahr: 2016

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56426-3_12