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2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

15. Sraffa, Money and Distribution

verfasst von : Ragupathy Venkatachalam, Stefano Zambelli

Erschienen in: A Reflection on Sraffa’s Revolution in Economic Theory

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Sraffa’s early work on monetary Economics, his contributions to the theory of capital and his critique of neoclassical tenets are often seen as disjoint contributions. In contrast, we suggest that Sraffa’s contributions have to be viewed as a coherent whole and offer a classification of his scholarly contributions. We point to the unifying thread between his early and later work, which concerns the insufficiency of economic mechanisms or market forces to exclusively determine values (prices, profit rates and wage rates). Their simultaneous determination and consequently the overall indeterminacy of the system are important. We outline the motivations for incorporating money (in the form of credit and debt) inside the traditional Sraffian schemes, to expand the original system and harness its potential. We believe that there is both a need and scope for incorporating deferred means of payments, which are essential for the functioning of any evolved economic system.

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Fußnoten
1
In the correspondence with Garegnani, Sraffa makes this point quite forcefully, see Sect. 3.1
 
2
It is also important to note in this context that Sraffa has spent time learning the practical workings of the wheels of banking from the inside as an apprentice at the provincial bank Banca di Legnano e Busto Arsizio post his graduation.
 
3
Sraffa’s Italian translation of A Tract on Monetary Reform was also published in 1925. Sraffa also published brief book reviews in the Giornale degli Economisti that concerned monetary and banking issues.
 
4
Although the title of Hayek’s book is Prices and Production, it is really about a monetary theory of the business cycle. The title of Sraffa’s review in fact is Dr. Hayek on Money and Capital. One of Sraffa’s points was that a disequilibrium scenario requires the use of deferred means of payments—i.e., money or credit-debt contracts.
 
5
This point made by Sraffa is often misunderstood or misinterpreted. Zambelli (2018b) takes the numerical values used by Sraffa and demonstrates that the value of capital and the industry capital/output ratios are all functions of distribution (prices). The values of aggregate capital, or the value of capital per industry do not remain constant as the distribution changes. Furthermore, their changes are not monotonic with respect to changes in distribution.
 
6
In his paper discussing Sraffa’s early work Sraffa (1920, 1922a) on money and banking, Panico (1988b, p. 7) underlines that:
Sraffa started his research working on applied monetary and banking problems, making some relevant contributions to the area. The theoretical problems that made his fame as an outstanding theoretician came to dominate his interests only at a later stage.
Panico also argues that:
… there is a close link between [Sraffa’s] earlier writings on applied problems and his later theoretical works, a link which clarifies the origins of his theoretical interests, showing the error of considering his contributions as ‘merely abstract exercise in pure theory’.
 
7
In his thesis, for instance, he takes the quantity theory of money as a given and applied it to monetary issues of his time (Panico 1988b, p. 10).
 
8
His critique of Hayek’s book was made alongside Keynes’ own critique of Hayek (Keynes 1931; Hayek 1931b, 1932b; Sraffa 1932a, b). There is evidence of Sraffa’s involvement in the corrections of ‘A Treatise on Money’ (Keynes 1930) as well. It is worth noting that Sraffa translated (Keynes 1923, ‘A Tract on Monetary Reform’) into Italian and was involved in the discussions surrounding the writing of Keynes’ ‘General Theory’. In this context, it is also important to bear in mind that Chapter 17 of the General Theory, (Keynes 1936, Ch: The Essential Properties of Interest and Money) may be interpreted as addressing the relation between interest and money using some of the arguments put forward by Sraffa in his review of Hayek. In fact, Keynes does acknowledge that the idea of the own rate of interest was taken from Sraffa’s critique (Sraffa 1932a) of Hayek’s ‘Prices and Production’ (Keynes 1936, p. 223, fn. 1). All these attest to the interpretation that money and monetary issues were not in anyway insignificant in Sraffa’s academic interests.
 
9
This was an important point already put forward in Sraffa (1922a) and subsequently in his debate with Hayek (Sraffa 1932a). Chapter 17 of Keynes (1936) may be interpreted to be addressing this problem using arguments put forward by Sraffa.
 
10
Text in the original:
[…] Lei opta […] per il saggio del profitto “determinato da influenza esterne del sistema …e particolarmente dal livello dei tassi monetari dell’interesse” […] sono restio ad avventurarmi, anche solo per accenni, sul terreno di una teoria del profitto determinato dai saggi monetari dell’interesse, col rischio di attribuire a lei opinioni che non ha.
Questo per la recensione. La questione peró mi interessa molto […] Espresso in termini molto rozzi il modo con cui vedo il problema è questo. Da Ricardo a Wicksell l’idea è stata che il saggio di interesse si adeguasse al saggio del profitto ottenuto nella produzione.
La giustificazione di quella teoria sta, mi sembra, nell’idea di una domanda di prestiti di elasticità pressoché infinita (dato il tempo richiesto per formulare i piani di investimento) intorno ai livelli dell’interesse corrispondenti al saggio di profitto ottenuto nella produzione. Se infatti tale elasticità esistesse, il saggio di interesse di mercato dovrebbe sempre tendere al suo livello “naturale” (l’eventuale tentative della autorità monetarie di fissare un diverso saggio creando o distruggendo credito fallirebbe, allora, perché il risultante processo di inflazione o deflazione costringerebbe a ritornare al saggio “naturale”) [Sraffa Papers, D3/12/111/150, emphasis added]. To this question, Sraffa replies in his letter as below:
 
11
Text in the original:
Dal punto di vista dei suoi studi mi pare che sia difficile unificare i punti di vista di Ricardo e Wicksell, per quanto entrambi facciano dipendere il saggio dell’interesse dal saggio del profitto. Ma quanto al “saggio del profitto” hanno in comune solo il nome: per il primo è l’eccedente al si sopra del salario dato, per il secondo il prodotto marginale del capitale! Come si fa a metterli in pariglia? Io vorrei sapere in che senso si possa dire che “la giustificazione di quella teoria” sta nella “domanda di prestiti ad elasticità infinita a saggio di interesse uguale al saggio di profitto”. Giustificazione un corno! Io la chiamo “ripetizione identica in parole difficili”, grave tautologia.
Non vedo la difficoltà della determinazione del saggio del profitto mediante un saggio dell’interesse controllato o convenzionale, a condizione che non si presupponga il saggio del profitto determinato da circostanze ineluttabili esterne. [Sraffa Papers, D3/12/111/150, our translation, emphasis added]
 
12
The text in Italian:
… sono convinto che il mantenimento del saggio d’interesse da parte della banca o della borsa abbia avuto la sua parte nel determinare la distribuzione del reddito fra le classi sociali: perché è un passaggio obbligato per chi dà e per chi prende a prestito.
[…] io non ho inteso dir niente di molto impegnativo, e in generale ho solo voluto metter fuori qualche segnale per evitare che si creda che il sistema viene presentato come “fondamenta” per una teoria delle offerte relative di capitale e lavoro! E’ la negazione che mi sembra importante: quanto alla affermativa non ho nessuna intenzione di mettere avanti un’altra teoria meccanica che, in una forma o nell’altra, ribadisca l’idea che la distribuzione sia determinata da circostanze naturali, o tecniche, o magari accidentali ma comunque tali da rendere futile qualsiasi azione, da una parte o dall’altra, per modificarla (Sraffa Papers, D3/12/111/149, in bold emphasis added).
 
13
If our interpretation is correct, it is puzzling that many Sraffians have placed a strong emphasis on the mechanics of the economic determination of the long term uniform profit rate.
 
14
On the notion of the period of production and on Sraffa’s personal notes on it, see Sinha (2016, Chap. 5, pp. 111–151). On Sraffa’s critique of the period of production as being independent of the rate of profits, see PCMC, Chapter 6, and a rather harsh comment of Sraffa (1962) on the review of PCMC by Harrod (1961).
 
15
See also Zambelli (2018a) for an empirical demonstration of this point.
 
16
Hahn (1982), Hahn and Petri (2002), Fratini (2018), Garegnani (2000), Mandler (1999a, b, 2002a, b, 2005), Negishi (2014, p. 7), Parrinello (2008), Schefold (2005, 2008), Sinha and Dupertuis (2009) are exam- ples where Sraffian schemes are studied in relation to Walrasian (intertemporal) general equilibrium. In these contributions there is a clear acknowledgment that Sraffian schemes are equivalent to the aggregate budget constraints of the producers, workers and consumers that compose the economic system.
 
17
There is evidence from Sraffa’s diaries that they met frequently while Hicks was in Cambridge (from 1935 to 1938). There is also the draft of the letter from Sraffa to Hicks in which Sraffa makes a precise quote in relation to Hicks’ “The Theory of Wages”, first Edition, Hicks (1932). In a personal conversation, Massimo Di Matteo at the University of Siena, who has been a student of Hicks, told the second author that he had indeed asked Sraffa about what the ‘useful criticisms’ were. He recalls Hicks’ answer that they discussed matters related with Walrasian General Equilibrium and Pareto.
 
18
See also Panico (1988b, p. 26) in support of this interpretation:
A well-defined thread, going throughout his writings up to Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, can thus be found in Sraffa’s work. His theoretical interests were enhanced by the need to provide firm analytical foundations for his original view of the working of the economic system. This view emphasised the role of state intervention in determining income distribution and the equilibrium position of the economy, and the fact that policy decisions are influenced by the pressures of the dominant groups, and are not the result of purely technical considerations. His earlier analyses on the influence of monetary policies on income distribution were closer to the classical and the Marxist tradition than to the neoclassical one. The study of these analyses, together with that of his contacts with Keynes, thus provides useful insights in the evolution of Sraffa’s thought, underlining that his later work is not ‘merely abstract exercise in pure theory’.
 
19
After twelve chapters, defining and proving theorems about Walrasian general equilibrium, Arrow and Hahn (1971) state this clearly:
Of course, our model is in no shape to give a satisfactory formal account of the role of money. In particular it would be hard to “explain” the holding of money or why it mediates in most acts of exchange. (p. 338)
 
20
The quotation we refer to in Sect. 3.2 is made at the end of section 48 in PCMC. Figure 2 in page 36 of Sraffa’s book shows the value of different ‘labour terms’ which when summed up make the value in terms of ‘embodied labour’ of capital, which varies as the profit rate (i.e. distribution of the surplus) varies. This result is also stressed with the aid of Fig. 3, which is found in the same page as the above quotation.
 
21
There is a possibility here for a misleading conclusion that this critique of economic theory that is based on the impossibility of measuring capital, or the values in general, is restricted to the adherence of a labour theory of value. This would be incorrect. Zambelli (2018b), for example, has shown that the values, even when the prices and values are determined by taking the surplus as the numéraire, are a function of distribution. Furthermore, when the agricultural sector (or any other sector) is taken to be the numéraire, there is no simple, unique measure of capital that is independent of distribution. This is a ‘modern’ critique and does not depend on the labour theory of value and the Austrian notion of the ‘period of production’ (Zambelli 2018b).
 
22
For a contemporary discussion of the transformation problem see also, among others, Dobb (1967), Laibman (1973), Samuelson (1971), Seton (1957), Shaikh (1984), Steedman (1977), Winternitz (1948).
 
23
Pilling (1972); de Brunhoff (1973, 1975) discuss the difference between Ricardo (and a Ricardian interpretation of the work of Sraffa made by the neo-Ricardians) and Marxian theory of value as it is dealt with in Marx’s Capital. “For Marx did not attempt to construct a pure economie theory, his field of problems and his point of departure is quite different from that of Ricardo and that of pure economics” (de Brunhoff 1973, p. 423). Crucial points are (1) Marx’s distinction between ‘labour-time’, ‘abstract labour’, ‘labour force power’ and ‘socially determined labour’ and (2) the different, unique meaning given to money.
 
24
Marx’s critique to Ricardo on this point may be summarized by the following:
With him [Ricardo], however, wage labour and capital are again conceived as a natural, not as a historically specific social form [Gesellschaftsform] for the creation of wealth as use value; i.e. their form as such, precisely because it is natural, is irrelevant, and is not conceived in its specific relation to the form of wealth, just as wealth itself, in its exchange- value form, appears as a merely formal mediation of its material composition; thus the specific character of bourgeois wealth is not grasped precisely because it appears there as the adequate form of wealth as such, and thus, although exchange value is the point of departure, the specific economic forms of exchange themselves play no role at all in his economics. Instead, he always speaks about distribution of the general product of labour and of the soil among the three classes, as if the form of wealth based on exchange value were concerned only with use value, and as if exchange value were merely a ceremonial form, which vanishes in Ricardo just as money as medium of circulation vanishes in exchange. Therefore, in order to bring out the true laws of economics, he likes to refer to this relation of money as a merely formal one. This does not mean that commodities do not have use values, but it is money which is the form that the commodities take. Hence also his weakness in the doctrine of money proper. (de Brunhoff 1973, p. 429, author translation from Marx‘s Grundrisse)
 
25
Zambelli (2018b) discusses this assumption. The uniform rate of profits is obviously a special case of Eqs. 15.5. This assumption is justified in PCMC, which is meant as a Prelude to a Critique of Economic Theory.
 
26
en × 1 is the summation vector.
 
27
I possess a copy of Keynes (1923) and both of Panico’s references to it, on p. 9 of his article, are incorrect (at least with regard to page numbers). Moreover, the quotation on the quantity theory of money is not entirely faithful to the original, in addition to the fact that neither Keynes, nor Sraffa accepted ‘the form dominant at that time’, which was Irving Fisher’s version of the quantity theory; as a matter of fact Keynes went into great trouble, in chapter III, § 1, of the same book, to give details of the version he (and Sraffa) worked with.
 
28
I shall explain, below, what is meant by a monolithic story.
 
29
This may be one reason for Sraffa’s disapproval of the famous chapterm17 of Keynes’s GT.
 
30
This does not mean I subscribe to a Darwinian-Mendelian theory of evolution. Even without reading Sraffa’s unpublished writings, I am sure he did not subscribe, either, to a conventional theory of evolution.
 
31
In our remarks concerning Keynes and Sraffa’s works during the early 1920s on the monetary theory of their time, we do not imply that they approved Fisher’s (or even that of Wicksell, or Hayek) version of the quantity theory of money. We emphasise that they both did, inside that framework, use the quantity theory to speculate on the relationship, for example, between prices and distribution.
 
32
We both, as well as many others, have consulted Sraffa’s archives, which are now available online. The material found in the archives confirms Sraffa’s statement that
[...] the central propositions [of PCMC] had taken shape in the late 1920’s [...] (PCMC, p. vi)
This and the archival material are evidence in support of our view that Sraffa’s research is to be seen as a coherent (although surely not monolithic!) whole.
 
33
In passing, we conjecture that this might have been the reason why Sraffa did not like or approve of Ch. 17 of the General Theory. Keynes (1936, Ch. 17, §II and §III ) develops an argument that there would be a ‘natural’ tendency for the own rates of interest of commodities to converge towards the own rate of interest of money:
Thus with other commodities left to themselves, ‘natural forces,’ i.e. the ordinary forces of the market, would tend to bring their rate of interest down until the emergence of full employment had brought about for commodities generally the inelasticity of supply which we have postulated as a normal characteristic of money (Keynes 1936, Ch. 17, §III, p. 235)
According to Keynes, full employment would not be reached, and hence the ‘natural forces’ of the markets would not fully operate, because money has a higher liquidity premium with respect to the carrying costs than any other commodity. Keynes does not challange or consider the direction of motion of prices. On the contrary, Sraffa is clearly concerned with this and argues that when the distribution changes the prices could change in all different directions (Lutz and Hague 1961, see Sraffa’s remark, p. 325). Even when the system is made determinate by assuming uniform rate of profits (or the wage rate), prices could move in different directions and consequently, the commodity own rates of interst could also do so.
The similarity of arguments in Garegnani’s letter to Sraffa (see our chapter), with those of the converging mechanisms described by Keynes in Ch. 17 is striking. By analogy and induction, it may be reasonable to suppose that Sraffa’s response to Keynes’ Ch. 17 would be similar to that of his repsonse for Garegnani’s justification.
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Sraffa, Money and Distribution
verfasst von
Ragupathy Venkatachalam
Stefano Zambelli
Copyright-Jahr
2021
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47206-1_15