Sustainable GeoInfrastructure

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Behaviour of Clay-Fouled Geogrid-Reinforced Rubber-Coated Ballast Under Direct Shear Conditions

   Md. Naquib Alam, Syed Khaja Karimullah Hussaini

   Abstract

   Rubber-coated ballast (RCB) is an inventive form of ballast produced by coating conventional ballast with recycled rubber crumb, employing an Elastan binder. The purpose of RCB is to minimize ballast breakage and thus enhances the longevity, and efficiency of railway tracks. In this study, granite, Elastan binder, crumb rubber of 0.4 mm size, and triangular geogrid were employed. The suitability of RCB was evaluated and compared with conventional ballast through the performance of the physical and mechanical tests following Indian standards (IS:2386–1963). The outcomes from the mechanical tests indicate that RCB exhibits superior resistance compared to conventional ballast. Following that, the shear characteristics and ballast breakage of unreinforced and geogrid-reinforced RCB-conventional ballast mix were investigated under various normal stresses, fouling conditions, and constant shearing rates. The outcomes of direct shear test show that the peak shear stress (τ) of both unreinforced and geogrid-reinforced RCB-conventional ballast mix reduces as the void contaminant index (VCI) content increases. Further, it is evident that with the inclusion of geogrid, the reduction rate of τ is reasonably lower as compared to unreinforced ballast. Furthermore, it is observed that in case of geogrid-reinforced RCB_50% (50% RCB mixed with conventional ballast) the τ is relatively higher or equal to unreinforced conventional ballast. Additionally, it is seen that with the increase in fouling content, the ballast breakage decreased owing to increasing cushioning. Furthermore, the insertion of geogrid considerably reduces ballast breakage compared to the unreinforced ballast.

3. Investigation of Shear Behaviour of Tyre Chips Intermixed Steel Slag Ballast Under Direct Shear Condition

   Atif Hussain, Syed Khaja Karimullah Hussaini

   Abstract

   Crushed stone extracted from natural sources is commonly utilized as railway ballast. Despite its effectiveness, its extraction process is environmentally destructive. In the twenty-first century, especially in civil Engineering projects, there is a growing emphasis on the judicious utilization of natural resources, prompting the exploration of alternative raw materials, particularly industrial by-products. The use of natural resources poses challenges both from environmental and economic perspectives. In this context, the current study explored the utilization of steel slag ballast (SSB) as an alternative to conventional granite ballast (GB) with an aim to reduce the burden on natural aggregate. Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA), impact, and large-scale direct shear tests were conducted on steel slag ballast (SSB) and granite ballast (GB) with and without tyre (waste tyre) chips. Test results indicate that SSB exhibited higher degree of resistance to abrasion and impact than conventional GB. Addition of tyre chips further reduces the abrasion and impact value both in case of SSB and GB. Direct shear test results indicate that irrespective of the proportion of tyre chips, SSB exhibited higher value of peak shear stress (τ), while exhibiting lower ballast breakage index (BBI). Moreover, addition of tyre chips reduces the value of τ and BBI both in case of SSB and GB. The optimal range of tyre chips to be mixed with SSB in order to have at least similar shear strength as that of granite ballast but with significantly lower particle breakage is determined to be 4.4–9.2%, depending upon the value of normal stress (σ_n).

4. Role of a Geofoam in Enhancing the Structural Activity of the Earth-Retaining Structure

   Khushboo Vishwakarma, Shruti Shukla

   Abstract

   The surge in urbanization and rapid industrialization has significantly intensified the demand for construction activities worldwide. This burgeoning need for infrastructure development, housing, and commercial spaces has, in turn, driven the exploration and adoption of materials beyond the scope of traditional construction materials. Environmental issues such as bottom ash disposal, plastic waste generation, and sand mining have paved the way for the sustainable use of these materials in our study as a backfill material behind the wall. The ongoing research investigates the suitability of utilizing bottom ash as a partial replacement for sand and plastic waste as a reinforcing element because of their exceptional strength-to-weight ratios. The study is motivated by the challenges posed by densely compacted soils behind retaining walls, which contribute to increased structural loads and, consequently, higher levels of deformation. Geofoam being only 1% of the weight of backfill when used as compressible inclusion (CI) behind the wall in different orientations is an innovative engineering solution that has gained popularity due to its lightweight, ability to enhance load-carrying capacity, and minimize differential settlement. The paper investigates the use of geofoam of densities 11, 16, and 34 kg/m³ behind the wall backfilled with either sand alone or with geomaterial prepared from bottom ash (BA) in 10–50% and plastic strips (PS) in 0.75–1.25% along with sand. The optimal mix of geomaterial was obtained as SB₅₀P₁ (Sand + 50% BA + 1%PS) and geofoam of density 34D based on the static load tests performed in the laboratory and as validated through the numerical study. A settlement reduction of 73% and bearing capacity improvement of 172% was reported when 34D geofoam was laid as CI along with 5 cm thick geofoam strips laid in layers behind SB₅₀P₁ as backfill.

5. Use of Natural Coir Fibers for Improving Liquefaction Sustainability

   Gali Madhavi Latha, Balaji Lakkimsetti

   Abstract

   This paper explores the use of natural coir fibers as a cost-effective and sustainable solution for liquefaction mitigation. Constant volume cyclic simple shear tests are carried out on natural river sand and sand with varying fiber content of 0.25%, 0.50%, and 0.75% by weight, and the results are compared. The influence of coir fibers on the generation of excess pore pressure, accumulation of shear strains, degradation of stiffness, and strain energy demand is quantified to compare the overall liquefaction response. Results showed that the liquefaction resistance increases by about 622% with the addition of 0.75% coir fibers to sand subjected to cyclic shearing with a peak-to-peak amplitude of 52 kPa and loading frequency of 0.20 Hz. Further, shaking table studies are carried out on sands with coir fibers to understand the large-scale applicability of coir fiber inclusions to mitigate liquefaction. The fundamental interactions between sand particles and coir fibers and mechanisms responsible for the beneficial effects of coir fibers are explained. The additional confinement effect generated through the stretching of coir fibers under applied forces is found to have a significant impact on creating a densification effect, thus leading to the overall enhancement of liquefaction resistance.

6. Effect of Biopolymer Amendment on Long-Term Strength Characteristics of Bauxite Residue Under Different Curing Conditions

   Kummari Sekhar, Nongmaithem Robinson Singh, Bendadi Hanumantha Rao

   Abstract

   Stabilization of problematic soils which would show high compressibility and low strength using cement and lime additives is a common and widespread practice. Due to the negative impacts with the use of these additives on the environment, there is an increasing focus on the use of sustainable and eco-friendly additives in the built and natural environment. Red mud is an insoluble product produced after bauxite digestion with sodium hydroxide and it is well documented to contain excessive alkalinity with a pH above 11. The high alkalinity is reportedly impeding the bulk utilization of the red mud. Additionally, slippery nature induced by excessive alkalinity dispossesses of proper particle bonding and thus leads to poor engineering properties such as strength and durability. The current study evaluates the durability characteristics of red mud amended with two biopolymers, namely guar gum (GG) and xanthan gum (XG). Biopolymers in 0.5, 1, 2 and 3% (w/w) are admixed with the red mud for the study purpose. Several identical samples are prepared, cured for 90 days at ambient temperature prior to subjecting them to wetting and drying cycles, and their unconfined compressive strength is determined. Since, there is no standard code illustrating the procedure for durability tests of biopolymer amended samples, guidelines specified by IRC SP: 89-2010 are followed in the present study. It is found from the results that samples prepared with 1 and 2% XG and 0.5% GG only retained the strength of more than 80% of the compressive strength, which is quite acceptable as per the criterion set by IRC SP: 89-2010, of dry specimen. Samples admixed with biopolymers content beyond 2% manifested a marginal volume change, rendering them unsuitable for practical applications. The study finds that the biopolymers are not only potentially sustainable alternate additive for stabilizing the red mud, but also converted it successfully as an acceptable material for civil engineering applications.

7. Exploring the Impact of Artificial Intelligence for Sustainable Construction: A Review of Current Directions

   Małgorzata Kurcjusz, Anna Stefańska, Magdalena Daria Vaverková

   Abstract

   Artificial Intelligence (AI) integration into Sustainable Engineering (SE) has gained significant attention recently. AI is a promising approach for enhancing SE practices by facilitating the analysis of large datasets, optimizing performance, designing sustainable infrastructure, controlling systems, and managing maintenance. This study aims to comprehensively review the impact of AI on SE and discuss the current directions in this field. The article aims to understand better how AI can enhance the sustainability of infrastructure systems and identify the challenges and opportunities associated with AI integration in SE. This paper reviews recent studies that have investigated the application of AI in SE and provides an assessment of the benefits and limitations of this technology. Furthermore, the study explores possible future directions for AI in SE, including developing more advanced algorithms, integrating AI with other emerging technologies, and using AI to address broader sustainability challenges. This review also highlights that AI can contribute significantly to SE practices. However, it also suggests that further research and development of AI for SE is necessary to fully understand and incorporate the benefits of this technology into the Architecture and Engineering Sector.

8. The Power of Public Spaces: An Overview of Energy Production Potential

   Carlos C. Duarte, Nuno D. Cortiços

   Abstract

   Public spaces play a vital role in shaping our cities, fostering social interactions, and enhancing the livability of urban environments. However, they also hold untapped potential for renewable energy generation, which can contribute to addressing the growing global energy demand forecasted until 2050. The concept of micro-generation is gaining traction as a strategy to increase the energy autonomy of communities and reduce reliance on heavy, inefficient centralized infrastructure. While this concept is actively promoted within the “buildings” sector, the implementation of micro-generation in urban public spaces, in the form of larger-scale interventions, has remained largely unexplored. Therefore, this study provides a brief overview of the power of public spaces for energy generation by exploring its current and promising technologies, scope of application, and showcasing some experimental case studies. Furthermore, the study discusses the most prominent challenges and opportunities behind the widespread adoption of renewable micro-generation in public spaces, emphasizing the importance of financial and technological constraints, policy support, and community engagement. Lastly, it aims to offer guidance for the current architectural approach toward urban public spaces, bridging the gap between theoretical concepts and their practical application, while paving the way for broader and more innovative interventions in the future.

9. Sustainable Enhancement of Flexible Pavements: Integrating Copper Slag and Fly Ash with Hydraulic Binders

   Satyajit Patel, Hrushikesh N. Kedar

   Abstract

   This study investigates the employment of copper slag and fly ash with hydraulic binders lime and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) to bolster the base layer of flexible pavements. By leveraging these industrial by-products, the research seeks sustainable advancements in pavement engineering. Laboratory tests evaluated compaction characteristics, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), and durability, examining their influence on pavement performance. The results indicated that mixes with copper slag and fly ash significantly improve mechanical and durability properties. For instance, mixtures with a 2% lime and 9% GGBS content achieved a UCS of 7.19 MPa after 28 days of curing, surpassing traditional base materials. Durability tests confirmed the mixes’ resilience, with a less than 5% loss in dry weight after durability cycles, well within acceptable limits for base and subbase applications. This research validates the hypothesis that integrating copper slag and fly ash in base layers not only mitigates industrial waste but also elevates pavement quality, making it a viable approach for sustainable and robust road construction.

10. Investigating the Potential of Xanthan Gum for Enhancing the Stability of Black Cotton Soil: A Sustainable Approach

    Sahil Bhatia, S. Rupali

    Abstract

    Black cotton soil, notorious for its high swelling and shrinkage properties, poses challenges in construction and infrastructure development. This study explores the impact of using the biopolymer xanthan gum to enhance the soil stability of black cotton. The interaction mechanisms between xanthan gum and high-plastic clay were investigated through comprehensive laboratory testing under various xanthan gum content (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2%) for a range of laboratory tests, including Atterberg’s limits, free swell index, Indian standard heavy compaction test, and unconfined compressive strength (UCS), to evaluate the mechanical behavior of both natural and treated soils. Additionally, microscale tests such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were conducted to scrutinize microscopic alterations in the treated soil. The findings of this research contribute valuable insights into the use of xanthan gum as an eco-friendly remedy for stabilizing black cotton soil, offering a sustainable method for enhancing soils in geotechnical applications.

11. Short-Term Drainage Performance of Geotextile-Recycled Asphalt Pavement Filter Systems

    Burak Bulut, Mustafa Hatipoglu

    Abstract

    In recent years, rapid technological advancements and population growth have led to a surge in global natural resource consumption. Recycling is crucial for environmental protection and sustainable resource utilization, notably through reusing construction and demolition waste materials and industrial by-products in civil engineering. Such initiatives promote sustainable resource utilization and contribute to the development of an eco-friendly environment and sustainable construction practices. The hydraulic properties of waste materials and by-products are among their characteristic features. This study explores the drainage behavior of a soil-geotextile system, employing recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) as an alternative to natural aggregates, and utilizes five different geotextiles with varying apparent opening sizes (AOS). To assess the hydraulic conductivity characteristics, a series of bubble tube permeameter tests were conducted. The samples were prepared to represent the worst-case filtration scenario, based on the filtration material requirements outlined in the Technical Specifications published by the General Directorate of Highways in Turkey. The samples were compacted at both standard proctor and modified proctor energy levels. Additionally, index property tests and California bearing ratio (CBR) tests were performed on the RAP material under both unsoaked and soaked conditions. The study evaluates the applicability of these systems in different fields, with a focus on their drainage and filtration capabilities, particularly in pavement drainage systems.

12. Utilisation of Two Industrial Waste Streams as Potential Replacement of Natural Sand for Constructional Purposes

    Ankit Mishra, MB Nikila, Yatharth Mittal, Partha Narayan Mishra

    Abstract

    Sand remains as the second most exploited natural resource after water. Excessive extraction of sand for constructional purposes has led to concerns about its scarcity. As a result, there is a growing need to explore and adopt alternative materials that can effectively replace sand in various construction applications. To that end, this paper attempts to study two local industrial waste streams, namely (a) coal mine overburden and (b) bottom ash for their geotechnical comparability with a naturally occurring sand. The study primarily focuses on the geotechnical characterisation of both the industrial wastes, and the sand samples including grain size analysis, specific gravity, compaction characteristics, relative density, and direct shear testing. The results preliminarily indicate that the chosen waste streams are potentially compatible with natural sand on the basis of certain mechanical properties. These results offer a possible reuse mechanism of the waste streams while addressing sand scarcity. However, geochemical and leaching studies will need to be conducted to assess and confirm their suitability from an environmental perspective.

13. Investigating Efficacy of Biochar in Improving the Engineering Properties of Black Cotton Soil

    Saurabh Kumar, S. Rupali

    Abstract

    Black cotton soil is known for its expansive properties, which can lead to infrastructure damage and instability. Biochar, a carbon-rich material derived from the pyrolysis of organic matter, offers a renewable and cost-effective alternative to conventional stabilizing agents. This study investigates the potential of biochar as a sustainable and eco-friendly solution for improving the engineering properties of black cotton soil, known for its high shrinkage and swelling characteristics. The objective of this project is to determine the optimal dosage of biochar for enhancing the physical and mechanical properties of black cotton soil. Laboratory testing, including heavy compaction test, unconfined compression test (UCS), specific gravity, and ++ centages of biochar (2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10%). The results demonstrate that the addition of biochar significantly improves soil stability and reduces shrinkage and swelling geotechnical properties. The findings of this research provide valuable insights for soil stabilization practices in regions where black cotton soil is prevalent. The study highlights the potential of biochar as a sustainable solution for enhancing the engineering properties of black cotton soil, contributing to the development of environmentally friendly soil stabilization techniques.

14. Response of Double-Line Railway Track Reinforced with Stone Columns Using Finite Element Method

    Shubham Khatri, Priti Maheshwari

    Abstract

    This study aims to determine the effect of using stone columns (S.C.) for stiffness improvement of weak subgrade below a double-line (DL) railway track system using the 3D finite element method. Subgrade, ballast, and sub-ballast are modeled as Mohr–Coulomb material. Sleepers and rails are considered as linear elastic. Symmetric conditions are analyzed by considering the same loading and boundary conditions for both tracks to reduce the computational time. The X-2000 train load is simulated for a speed of 250 km/h. A significant reduction in the vertical displacement of the subgrade is observed due to the introduction of stone columns. A parametric study is conducted to study the effect of loading conditions and geometric and material properties of stone columns on settlement characteristics of the reinforced track system. The applied load, velocity, length, and spacing-to-diameter ratio of stone columns significantly affected the performance of stone columns as the reinforcing material. The effect of stiffness of the stone column was noticeable only for very soft subgrade.

15. Behaviour of Geotextile Filters Under Artificial Clogging Conditions

    Anna Markiewicz, Marta Kiraga, Eugeniusz Koda

    Abstract

    Interaction between soils and nonwoven geotextiles is very important in applications of these materials as filters in geoenvironmental engineering. Filters are often used to avoid the erosion of soils in contact with the filter without impeding the flow of seeping water through the soil. A nonwoven geotextile should retain soil particles while allowing seeping water to drain freely. Significantly, the mechanism of soil-nonwoven geotextile interaction is very complex due to the variety of soils and geotextiles. The design of geotextile filters requires a clear definition of the geotechnical characteristics to be achieved with geosynthetics. Numerous methods have been developed for the determination of the filtration compatibility of soil-geotextile systems. These include the gradient ratio test, the long-term flow test, and the hydraulic conductivity ratio test. Without any doubt, the gradient ratio test is the most popular for measuring the filtration behaviour of soil-geosynthetic systems. This article presents a laboratory method for the study of the interaction between internally unstable soil and needle-punched nonwoven geotextiles, with particular reference to the applications of these materials as filters. The need for improvements in laboratory tests for a better understanding of soil-nonwoven geotextile interaction and modifying filtration criteria for nonwoven geotextiles is highlighted. The obtained results show that geotextiles having the same pore size of openings may have different filtration behaviour.

16. Geotechnical Characterization of Incinerated MSW Ash for Liner Applications

    S. Kaveri, K. V. N. S. Raviteja

    Abstract

    Incineration of municipal solid waste (MSW) along with energy recovery has been proven to reduce the volume of waste destined for landfills by as much as 90%. According to Indian solid waste management regulations, all municipal solid waste must be treated in composting facilities, waste-to-energy facilities, or other processing plants before being disposed of in landfills. This requirement not only lessens the spatial footprint of landfills but also contributes positively toward environmental sustainability. However, one challenge that remains is how to effectively reuse or dispose of the residues left behind after the incineration process. Even with comprehensive resource recovery, current estimates indicate that 25–35% of total MSW generated remains as residue that accumulates in landfills if not further used. Therefore, this research focuses on exploring the potential application of incinerated MSW ash as landfill liners. The study undertakes a meticulous analysis of both bottom ash and fly ash through extensive geotechnical characterizations. In order to gauge their suitability as landfill liners, the study conducts detailed geotechnical analysis on various aspects such as hydraulic conductivity and compressibility. Ultimately, this research promotes the massive utility of incinerated MSW ash, thereby encouraging a sustainable approach toward landfill management.

17. A Preliminary Investigation on the Use of a Marble Factory By-Product as a Sustainable Soil Stabiliser

    Francesco Moscato, Marco Rosone, Clara Celauro

    Abstract

    In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on environmental sustainability in infrastructure construction, particularly focusing on preserving natural and non-renewable resources. Within this context, the application of chemical binders for treating excavated clayey soils stands as a fundamental solution in driving sustainable infrastructure development forward. This traditional approach maximises the utilisation of natural unsuitable soils as construction materials that could otherwise be overlooked or not fully utilised. However, the use of cement or lime could compromise the sustainability of the stabilisation technique due to the environmental impact of their production cycles. This research aims to explore the possibility of improving the sustainability of soil stabilisation using a new binder derived from an industrial by-product. The preliminary results of a rigorous evaluation of the effectiveness of the stabilisation technique of natural clay soil using a slurry material derived from the production of Sicilian marble. Initially, the chemo-physical characterisation of the raw material and the evaluation of the Atterberg limits and pH values of the soil-binder mixtures were performed. Then, the mix design of the stabilised mixtures was accomplished, and Standard Proctor compactions were carried out using different novel binder dosages. On the same samples, preliminary mechanical tests (i.e. penetration tests) were performed. Collected test results of the innovative mixtures have been compared with those obtained with the same clay treated with classical quicklime. The preliminary results obtained are promising since they prove the potential of marble powder to improve the properties of clayey soils as a replacement for quicklime.

18. Durability of Underground Parts of Buildings in Unfavourable Ground and Water Conditions and Their Impact on the Water Environment Pollution—A Case Study

    Barbara Francke, Eugeniusz Koda, Maciej Żołnierczuk

    Abstract

    This paper analyses the effects of new buildings in difficult soil and water conditions (high groundwater level, flood terrace), within large cities. These effects were analysed in two ways, both in relation to the durability of the building structures and by assessing their impact on the surrounding environment, with particular reference to the pollution of watercourses located within the estate. The problem was discussed using the example of a housing estate, known as Wilanów town, located in Warsaw near a surface watercourse, i.e. the Służewiec Stream, with a network of tributary/drainage ditches/channels. For this purpose, an assessment of the technical condition of the building sited in difficult soil and water conditions after several years of operation was used, as well as the results of studies of pollution levels in the adjacent, watercourse. With regard to the building object, the influence of groundwater on the tightness of the insulation of the below-ground parts of the building was analysed. The analysis of changes in contaminant levels in the watercourse was carried out with reference to the heavy metal content of the bottom sediments.

19. A Sustainable Binder for Deep Soil Mixing Columns in Loose Sand

    Megha Shankar, P. V. Divya

    Abstract

    Deep soil mixing is considered as an in situ ground treatment in which native soils are mixed with cementitious materials, usually called as binders. DSM is a versatile technique for ground development. Since the development of this method, the binders conventionally used have been Ordinary Portland Cement and lime. In the present study, an attempt was made to develop sustainable binders for ground improvement of loose sand with an emphasis on deep soil mixing columns. The effect of curing and the optimum water for the binder was also explored. The binder was able to impart binding properties between sand particles. The unconfined compressive test results of the sample made using the binder and sand show that the strength of the sample is 2542.2 kN/m². The UCS tests done of three samples having various water contents of 15, 18, and 21% at 7-day and 28 day curing showed that the optimum molding moisture content of the binder is 18%. It was understood that the strength is affected by the method chosen for curing. The addition of this binder has produced a C–S–H gel which is responsible for this increase in the strength.

20. The Tailwater Reinforcement Length Influence on the Local Scour Depth

    Marta Kiraga, Anna Markiewicz

    Abstract

    This article delves into the crucial intersection of two aspects of sustainable engineering: achieving design aims, and not worsening the quality of the surrounding environment, focusing on the impact of the downstream concrete reinforcement length on the amount of local and secular erosion. In practice, the downstream weir reinforcement is often designed assuming the division into rigid and flexible parts. Rigid fortifications are usually concrete slabs laid with their longer edge in accordance with the direction of water flow. Flexible fortifications, on the other hand, can be made using aggregates and natural stones. The literature review demonstrates that local scours cannot be completely excluded. Therefore, it is important to predict their location and geometric dimensions already at the design stage. After exceeding a certain length of reinforcements, the effect of their length on the magnitude of local scour becomes insignificant. Thus, lengthening the concrete slab does not have the desired effect and only translates into an increase in their volume and therefore cost. The approach involves investigating the relationship between the length of rigid reinforcement at tailwater part of a laboratory weir model on the length and depth of local scours. The conclusions obtained from this research can contribute to the development of environmentally friendly and sustainable engineering practices, ensuring the longevity and environmental friendliness of hydraulic structures.

21. Ecological Library as a Tool for Sustainable Development of Modern City

    Ivanna Voronkova

    Abstract

    The modern city is an important social and cultural-spatial entity, within which events from various spheres of human life take place. These events affect not only the development of society but also the general state of ecology. In contrast to rural areas, in cities, the urbanized environment prevails over the natural, so the formation of the city’s ecological infrastructure is an extremely important issue. The article considers various types of environmental initiatives that have found their practical application in the architecture and construction of libraries. The study is focused on successful examples of ecological library functioning in different regions of the world. The essence of the study is to highlight the important role of the library, which it plays in the formation of environmental awareness of society. Along with this, the article emphasizes the growing attention to ecological library buildings and their potential to change the face of the modern city in terms of sustainable development.

22. Application of Remote Sensing Methods in Monitoring Changes at Reclaimed Landfills

    Grzegorz Pasternak, Eugeniusz Koda, Janina Zaczek-Peplinska

    Abstract

    Landfill reclamation is a complex process. It requires long-term monitoring of multiple, ever-changing environmental factors such as leachate, migration of pollutants to water, biogas and atmospheric emissions, as well as geotechnical factors such as stability and subsidence. Remote sensing methods, having the ability to collect data over a large area and with high spatial and temporal resolution, can be particularly useful in monitoring these factors. Periodic monitoring makes it possible to detect even the smallest changes occurring in a landfill and to assess the effectiveness of remediation. Monitoring data also allows the detection of damage to the landfill body caused by subsidence, surface water run-off caused by heavy rainfall, and wild animal activity. This helps to detect and repair potential problems before they become major hazards. Particularly useful in remote sensing methods is the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), which, together with appropriate sensors, allow detailed data to be provided in a short time and at high frequency. The use of UAVs in this type of measurement offers an interesting and much cheaper alternative to aerial and satellite data. To present the possibilities of using remote sensing data, a case study of the Słabomierz-Krzyżówka landfill site is presented. The landfill has been already closed and its future development is intended for a photovoltaic farm. The reclaimed landfill covers an area of 13 ha and has a height of 30 m. The survey used an RGB camera, a multispectral camera, a thermal camera, and a laser scanner. These sensors, combined with the UAV, allowed the landfill to be inventoried and to identify changes such as damage to the landfill’s mineral cover. The collected data also made it possible to detect changes in the vegetation cover of the landfill caused by the impact of outflowing pollutants. Vegetation can be used as a bio-indicator for potential sites of pollution outflow from the landfill.

23. The Influence of Additions to Binders on the Compression Strength in the Process of the Stabilization of Low-Frost-Susceptible Soils

    Konrad Piechowicz, Sylwia Szymanek

    Abstract

    Soil stabilization, achieved through the use of binders such as cement, lime, or ashes, along with special additives, significantly enhances the durability of substructure construction and earthen road surfaces. The article presents the results of compression strength tests on clayey rubble samples. These samples were stabilized with a hydraulic binder (specifically, cement 32.5 R) at concentrations of 5%, 7%, and 10%, and with the use of special additives that significantly strengthen the structure of the stabilized soil. Additives to the cement, such as the ion-exchangeable one marked K1, the chemical one marked EN1, and the polymer NC, play a role in strengthening the bond between the soil and the binder at a molecular level. This results in a more durable and resistant structure of the soil-concrete mixture. The results obtained were compared with those for soil stabilized with cement alone. All results were evaluated based on the current standard.